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Page[0]=new Array("Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia How to use dynamics?","A lot of organisational problems, regarded at face value, seem to point to a simple and direct solution.","Problems are mostly described in a negative formulation: goals are too vague, expertise is lacking, no one keeps agreements.","The solutions seem to be the inverts of the negatives: define goals more clear, start capacity building, agree on agreeing.","But simple solutions often fail, because other forces are at work.","Underlying mechanisms often affect the potential capacities of the organisation.","We call these forces the dynamics of the problem.","The dynamics often explain why a specific problem was not solved by the self healing capacity of the organisation.","The dynamics may invisibly nourish the problem.","They prevent simple solutions to work.","Growing individualism for instance explains why top down commands in hierarchical organisations have become less effective. ","Knowing the dynamics of a problem may help to take the underlying factors into account when trying to solve the problem.","Recognising the dynamics may help to prevent looking for simple solutions.","The dynamics themselves are always refractory and hardly ever manageable.","Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia Voluntary action.","Most NGO's in former Yugoslavia began their existence during and after the war.","Society was facing huge war related problems and GO's, because of the connections with the fighting parties, were not the ones to handle the situation.","Voluntary actions of civilians tried to bring about relief.","A lot of women initiatives were started.","Some feminist organisations, already existing before the war, became active as relief organisations.","Refugees, women war victims, traumatised women and children were helped, supported, and given shelter.","A lot of those first initiatives were founded by feminists, active in the anti-war movement, and thus strongly ideologically motivated.","Donors coming in, transition to NGO's.","Rather soon an immense invasion of international humanitarian aid organisations took place, followed by donor organisations of a variety of nationalities, all looking for possibilities to offer assistance.","This invasion took place especially in Bosnia and – a bit less-  in Croatia.","Serbia was put under a ban by the international community, many NGO’s never profited of the international urge to support NGO’s, other received help, but belated.","Helping the fresh initiatives of voluntary women seemed to be a good way to express international solidarity.","And so a lot of women action groups and women initiatives turned into NGO's, internationally an accepted organisational form to receive foreign financial support.","The community of NGO's was born.","Without NGO models, without a NGO  tradition, but gifted with strong ideas, energy, enthusiasm, (wo)manpower and...","money.","Donors in general did not put much effort into checking the reliability of NGO’s with whom they worked.","In the beginning, those young organisations generally functioned quite well.","Enthusiasm made up for the eventual lack of organisational experience and knowledge.","The needs of the society were immense, the power of action was proportional.","As long as the need was overwhelming, most of the organisations did not suffer from their imperfections.","Organisational developments influenced by donors and donor money.","Organisations able to execute the donors wish to alleviate the war related problems were overrun by donors, jostling each other to spend.","In terms of marketing: donors were in a sellers market.","Some donors offered money for well defined projects, others offered assistance, training, goods for refugee camps etc.","Especially the NGO's dealing with psycho-social help (as was the key product of most of the new women organisations) could choose by whom they wanted be trained, educated or subsidized for their projects.","The effect was a comfortable offer of attention and goods (although not always in the right place and not always at the right moment),  sometimes an overkill of training and education possibilities and often (especially in big cities) access to funds for relief related work.","So relatively small NGO's, with 3 to 10 activists, could contract a lot of people who could do the growing job of visiting refugee camps, taking care of sheltered women and children, counselling, etc.","The young NGO's grew in personnel, often before the own structure and decision making process was organised or crystallized.","The first organisational arrangements.","Most of the young NGO's had no other model than the strictly organised worker's self-management, or the horizontal anti-war and women's movement.","The most desired structure for the young NGO seemed to be a horizontal consultative one.","But in the circumstances of rapid growth the time consuming horizontality did not satisfy.","The activists who founded the organisation fell back on their early decision making structure: the leader, two leaders or a small management team became the policy making and decision core of the organisation.","Contacts with the donor organisation, other important external contacts, financial control and control over the personnel were all centralised.","'Normal' development of NGO's.","NGO's born in another era, without the immense demands caused by a war, get the chance to have an organic development.","The founders are for a long time the decisive core of the organisation.","If the organisation is successful and survives (not all of them do), sometimes the possibility for funding gradually comes into sight.","Some organisations will never be funded, and continue being based on volunteer work, others will get some funds that permit them to transform a part of the voluntary work into paid jobs.","Professionals enter the organisation, and with trial and error some organisations learn to deal with such new conditions.","Some do  not.","Even if organisations get the time to develop gradually, the process of growing will not proceed without problems.","Young NGO's will meet setbacks, internal conflicts, problems concerning the founders and power struggles.","But a 'normal' growth will lead to a natural selection: organisations which appear not to be viable will disappear, those which are successful will survive, will grow and will enter new phases of development.","This natural selection is working in countries of former Yugoslavia.","But in a delayed manner because money was also made available to NGO's that did not have the quality to deliver good service in the first place.","The disadvantages of the rapid growth and the flood of money.","A lot of NGO's in former Yugoslavia were founded in a hurry, eager to try to deal with the huge problems.","Donors provided money in an early stage.","The internal organisation often was considered to be of minor importance.","Organisations grew in size, sometimes really puffed up, but without a parallel growth of organisational maturity.","The initial chosen structure and decision making arrangements did not develop any further.","The flood of money caused another big problem.  The motivation  to join the organisation became contaminated by the opportunity to earn money.","In some cases not fully skilled newcomers earned a lot more than skilled professionals in governmental organisations.","The insecurity about their motivation demanded a rather sophisticated way of management.","But most organisations lacked a full grown development of internal structures.","In default of other means it led to a reduction of allowed autonomy of the workers and provoked a (further) centralization of control.","One of the normal perspectives in the life cycle of NGO's became less probable: the end of an organisation.","Organisations which probably would not have survived in normal conditions, continued their existence, simply because foreign donors continued funding.","Workers there suffer from all kinds of organisational imperfections but continue to do the job.","Dissatisfaction will be growing, causing internal conflicts, a high absence due to illness, a growing turnover, an increasing chance of corruption and reduced output.","Retreating donors.","Some time after the war foreign donors began to shift their interest to other parts of the world.","Afghanistan is in need, Iraq becomes the next focus of international attention.","The international humanitarian aid organisations pull out, leaving the NGO's organisations behind which got used to be funded by them.","Panic everywhere.","Some foreign donors are willing to continue funding, some of them only if NGO's will change their objectives to meet priorities of the donor or priorities of the donors government.","Trafficking of women for instance, becomes a topic for which some donors still want to pay.","Some NGO's adjust their goals and start to cover the topic of trafficking as well.","They may survive, but there is no funding for their original work: helping refugees, treating war related traumas, fighting sexual violence.","The national government or the local communities sometimes can bring some relief, but the subsidy from these sources is incomparable with the amount of money the NGO's were used to receive.","The shortage of money causes a fight for the available donors and their money.","This fight is not only being fought out among the NGO's, but also within organisations, weakening their stability.","Paid professionals cannot be contracted any longer, management tries to control the flow of money wherever possible.","Possible solutions.","However sad it may be, the retreat of donors can have positive effects on the sanity of the NGO community.","All the improper reasons to continue, slipped in by paying donors, can be reconsidered.","The moment has come for a firm reorientation of goals.","Why are we existing? And what do we want to realise?","As a consequence most NGO's will undergo big changes.","Some NGO's succeed in finding subsidies, whether or not with adapted goals.","Some of them may survive, probably smaller in size.","(Look at: solution 5: reducing the organisation.)","Those NGO's who will survive need to reconsider their organisational development, looking for some organisational hygiene.","(Look at: solution 1: structure and authority.)","Depending on the type of product or service, some NGO's will have the possibility to become market oriented and find clients who want to pay for their services.","(Read: the fan of mainstreaming.)","Some NGO's will get back to their original state of being: an action group or an organisation of volunteer work.","(Look at: reorientation of goals; solution 3: back to action group.)","And some of the organisations will die.","(Look at: solution 10: closing the organisation.)","Dynamics 1: Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia","./en_dyn_stepping_up_of_ngos.htm","11,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[1]=new Array("Dealing with differences How to use dynamics?","A lot of organisational problems, regarded at face value, seem to point to a simple and direct solution.","Problems are mostly described in a negative formulation: goals are too vague, expertise is lacking, no one keeps agreements.","The solutions seem to be the inverts of the negatives: define goals more clear, start capacity building, agree on agreeing.","But simple solutions often fail, because other forces are at work.","Underlying mechanisms often affect the potential capacities of the organisation.","We call these forces the dynamics of the problem.","The dynamics often explain why a specific problem was not solved by the self healing capacity of the organisation.","The dynamics may invisibly nourish the problem.","They prevent simple solutions to work.","Growing individualism for instance explains why top down commands in hierarchical organisations have become less effective. ","Knowing the dynamics of a problem may help to take the underlying factors into account when trying to solve the problem.","Recognising the dynamics may help to prevent looking for simple solutions.","The dynamics themselves are always refractory and hardly ever manageable.","Dealing with differences","Ethnic contradistinctions in the region are very old.","These underground dormant ethnic tensions were exploited by political leaders.","They defined the cause of existing problems as national or ethnical.","A lot of women organisations, partly developed in the anti war movement, partly founded to alleviate suffering of women with war related traumas, kept ties over the borders with each other, acting against the nationalistic tendency of ethnic separatism.","These organisations shared ideas, discussed the future of the region and that of women in particular.","All kinds of groups, organisations or NGO's started in or after the war, had to deal with ethnic differences.","Especially anti-war organisations and ideology driven women organisations tried to deal with differences in a productive way.","One NGO representative states it as follows: “We were never blind for differences but we tried to overcome them by creating common grounds.","We were actually very proud of this and we have put as a statement on all our publications, leaflets etc.","that we worked with and for women regardless their national, political and religious background and sexual orientation.","We were anti nationalistic but not in denial of differences”.","Their work was often characterised by fighting the gaps between groups of various ethnic background.","They often fought discrimination and promoted reconciliation.","People traumatised in ethnic conflict were often the target group for these organisations.","Ethnnical contradistinctions know a long history in former Yugoslavia.","Other than ethnical contradistinctions also existed: in social class, religion, economics and political.","These differences are mixed up and differ for parts of the country, regions or –nowadays- states.","All these factors together played a common role in the falling apart of former Yugoslavia, in the many conflicts and in the ten years of war violence.","At the same time the history of Yugoslavia also shows moments of mutual ties on societal, economical and political areas.","For instance the joint rebuilding of Yugoslavia after the second World War is an example of going beyond differences, made possible by a forceful political system and the very strong statesman Tito.","But without such a dominant bonding power the regional tendency is to stress differences.","Even nowadays there is a explicit tendency to stress the national differences, for instance in matters of language.","In former days everyone could understand each other, from Zagreb to Belgrade.","At this very moment in Croatia an own language is created.","As a matter of fact it is a sort of re-introduction of the antique Croatian language, in order to be able to distinguish the Croatian people from the other peoples in the region.","However genuine some NGO’s may fight the wrong way to deal with differences, no individual or group can place itself outside the history of its country or region.","The history of Yugoslavia provides a risk of re-defining conflicts in terms of differences: national, ethnical, religious or whatever.","The ethnical or national (or whatever) frame of reference offers a common script only avoidable by explicitly rejecting it.  Sometimes problems in organisations show themselves along lines of differences, along ethnical or national lines for instance.","The formation of subgroups, including intensified contact within the subgroups, is done along these lines.  Conflicts tend to be described along these lines.","Splitting up can happen along these lines.","This phenomenon is a serious and painful risk for NGO's.","Dynamics 4: Dealing with differences","./en_dyn_differences.htm","5,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[2]=new Array("Dynamics: Overview","Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia","Traumatisation","Coming from socialism","Dealing with differences","Dynamics: Overview","./en_dyn_overview.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[3]=new Array("The traumatised organisation.","How to use dynamics?","A lot of organisational problems, regarded at face value, seem to point to a simple and direct solution.","Problems are mostly described in a negative formulation: goals are too vague, expertise is lacking, no one keeps agreements.","The solutions seem to be the inverts of the negatives: define goals more clear, start capacity building, agree on agreeing.","But simple solutions often fail, because other forces are at work.","Underlying mechanisms often affect the potential capacities of the organisation.","We call these forces the dynamics of the problem.","The dynamics often explain why a specific problem was not solved by the self healing capacity of the organisation.","The dynamics may invisibly nourish the problem.","They prevent simple solutions to work.","Growing individualism for instance explains why top down commands in hierarchical organisations have become less effective. ","Knowing the dynamics of a problem may help to take the underlying factors into account when trying to solve the problem.","Recognising the dynamics may help to prevent looking for simple solutions.","The dynamics themselves are always refractory and hardly ever manageable.","The traumatised organisation.","Traumatisation is known as a reaction of people who experience serious events (victims of war, accidents, sexual violence etc.)","People who try to help those traumatised victims run the risk to get traumatised themselves.","This phenomenon is called secondary traumatisation.","In order to deal with the unbearable, traumatised workers may show the tendency to take a distance to the victims, to moderate the gravity of their situation, to deny the problems and even to blame the victim.","The original involvement turns into creating a distance.","Of course such behaviour is a coping mechanism, constructed in an unconscious way.","It is defence against the human (brain driven) tendency to synchronise the own emotional and behavioural reaction to those of the victims of trauma's.","If the workers are not treated well, being themselves -secondary- victims of traumatisation, there is a chance that the whole organisation will get traumatised.","Momentum of becoming traumatised as an organisation.","The most likely moment to become traumatised is when the biggest emergency is at its end.","In the midst of a crisis people can surmount and neglect their own troubles, even if they run higher and higher.","Right after the worst moment when the dead are buried and the hospitals are full of wounded, the effects of traumatisation announce themselves.","Symptoms of the traumatised organisation.","The symptoms of the organisation being traumatised are of a violent but hardly specific nature.","The staff feels a strong discontent with the organisation, in particular with the management, which is heavily criticised.","People are constantly quarrelling.","The slightest provocation is enough to ignite a violent conflict.","Nagging and gossip are the order of the day.","People feel tired, unsafe, neglected, deserted and not appreciated in their efforts.","Trauma's cause a compulsion of repetition.","Conflicts are repeated.","The image of the external enemy seems to be present even in the organisation.","If in the external world ethnic tensions have caused the problems that the organisation is working on, internal conflicts will be fought along comparable dividing lines.","People really suffer from these phenomena.","The absence due to illness may rise.","If the management is unaware of the trauma related specificity of these symptoms, they in turn may (unconsciously) take the role of being aggressive or neglecting, accusing the workers of dysfunctional behaviour.","In this way the 'contamination' of trauma's may rage through the organisation, damaging its sanity and effectiveness.","Aggravating organisational characteristics.","The more violent the problems of the clients of the organisation, the more vehement the reactions of the professional helpers can be.","Especially if the helpers feel powerless towards the victims and their problems.","Some other organisation linked characteristics may aggravate the traumatisation.","The worst is a lack of appropriate skills leaving the helper empty handed.","Other aggravating factors are a workload being too high (powerlessness) or too low (feeling of uselessness); lack of clear expectations concerning the performance of the workers; a failing trinity of tasks, authority and accountability; polluted communication channels; inadequate working conditions, lack of organised support.","Prevention and cure of traumatised organisations.","If a problem in an organisation is in one way or another related to the dynamics of the traumatised organisation, simply trying to solve the isolated problem will bring no relief.","Two recommendations can be made:","being aware of the dynamics of traumatisation can help.","Common reflection, sharing of experiences and their emotional impact, mutual support, all these actions can help to understand the underlying dynamics and eventually to deal with the situation.","If necessary the organisation should look for professional help to solve the trauma related problems.","organisational hygiene helps to diminish trauma-aggravating conditions.","See solution 1: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Who wants to know more about traumatised workers, teams and organisations: This short note is borrowed from an (Dutch) article on this topic by Angeline Donk: irrational processes in the organisation","Dynamics 2: The traumatised organisation","./en_dyn_traumatisation.htm","6,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[4]=new Array("1.4.4.1: If this is how you define the conflict  something serious is going on.","In an average NGO all the workers including those who are hired to do a job are firmly behind the goals of the organisation.","So the first step should be to check your definition.","Ask the people involved if they join your view.","A common definition may result.","If not:","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Intermezzo 1.4.4.1","./en_im_1_4_4_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[5]=new Array("Literature General knowledge on organisations","Mintzberg on management.","The Free Press, NY, 1989    (including also his older work on organisational structures like Structure In Fives etc.)","Moss Kanter: Changemasters, Unwin, London 1986.","Senge: the fifth discipline, the art and practice of the learning organisation.","Doubleday, NY, 1990 Organisational culture","Hofstede: Culture and organisations: software of the mind.","Mc Graw Hill, London, 1991.","Schein: Organisational Culture and leadership.","Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1987","Scott-Morgan: The unwritten rules of the game.","McGraw Hill, Londen, 1994","Jacobs: Systems of survival.","A dialogue on the moral foundations of commerce and politics.","Random House, 1992.","Strategic planning","Johnson, Scholes: Exploring corporate strategy.","Prentice Hall, NY, 1993","Mintzberg: Rise and fall of strategic planning.","Prentice Hall, NY, 1994","Naisbitt, Aburdene: megatrends 2000","Popcorn: Clicking, 16 trends to future fit our life, your work and your business.","Harper Collins, USA, 1996","Porter: Competitive advantage.","Free Press, NY, 1985","Prahalad and Hamel: Competing for the future: breakthrough strategies for seizing control of your industry and creating markets for tomorrow.","Harvard, 1994 Management and leadership","Hersey, Blanchard: Management of organisational behaviour.","Prentice Hall, NJ, 8th ed.2002","Kotter: A force for change.","How leadership differs from management.","Free Press, NY, 1990","Maister: Managing the professional service firm.","Free Press, NY, 1993.","Quinn (R): Becoming a master manager (1998) Gender and diversity in organisations.","MacDonald, Sprenger, Dubel: Gender and organisational change.","Royal Tropic Institute, Amsterdam, 1997","Moss Kanter: Men and women of the corporation.","Basic books, NY, 1977 NGO's and civil society",""Citizens", strengthening global civil society", brochure of Civicus,1994","Cohen, Rogers: "Associations and Democracy", The real Utopias Project.","Verso, London, New York, 1995.","Ibase: "Development, International Cooperation and NGOs", IBASE, 1992","Fowler: Striking a balance.","Earthscan, London 2000.","Theunis, Sjef: "Non-governmental Development Organizations of Developing Countries, And the South smiles...", Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, UNITAR, 1992.","Wilson: Introduction to social movements, NY Basic Books, 1973).","Fundraising","www.grassrootsfundraising.org","Kim Klein: Fundraising for social change.","Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 2000.","Rosso: Achieving excellence in fundraising.","Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 1991.","Power","Mulder: Daily power game.","Nijhof Social Sciences, Leiden, 1977","Literature","./en_literature.htm","3,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[6]=new Array("MANUAL OD TOOLKIT Who provided the toolkit?","The OD toolkit is provided by Admira.","Admira (1994) provides training and consultancy to professional and volunteer organisations involved in providing shelter and support to survivors of sexual and domestic violence in war and post war situations.","It started its work during the war in the countries of the former Yugoslavia.","Admira operates on the assumption that the involvement of the local health services in assisting survivors of sexual and domestic violence can be stimulated through an active and powerful women's movement.","For these reasons, Admira also supports women's organisations by offering advice in the area of organisational development.","Development of this Toolkit on Organisational Development was undertaken to consolidate the effects of the consultancy work of Admira in the countries of the former Yugoslavia.","What is the toolkit?","The OD TOOLKIT is a guide for non governmental organisations or non governmental development organisations  in reading materials on organisational development (OD), based on an inventory of organisational problems* How  to use the toolkit?","A NGO can use the toolkit in three ways:","defining the own problems, being guided to problem related materials","searching for a specific topic using key-words, or","jumping to the reading section, to explore the chapters that seem to be the most relevant.","The first way to use the toolkit: defining the own problem.","The OD-toolkit contains a description of frequently observed problems in organisations.","Ten problem area's are presented: atmosphere, output, turnover of personnel, goals, resilience, money, power, expertise, agreements and external relationships.","The user chooses one category and may refine the description of its actual problem definition by choosing deeper levels.","More than 200 specific problems are described in this way.","Having chosen a specific problem that represents as close as possible the most bothering actual problem, the user is guided through relevant related topics and solutions.","All the problems refer to related material: dynamics, intermezzo's, solutions and/or reading materials.","With a simple click on the title one may enter the accompanying reading material.","So, starting with a problem there is a choice how to look at it.","In some cases general mechanisms underlying more organisational problems in the region are described, we call them the dynamics of the problem,","Often a dynamic factor related to the specific problem at stake is described, we call it an intermezzo.","Two families of suggestions, called solutions are described.","The first family is about organisational basics.","The second aims at change.","Solutions like growth, downsizing, cooperation or splitting up are described.","Special attention is given to development from pioneering to professional organisation and to  mobilising civil society.","From problems and from solutions references are made to specific reading materials.  An overview of literature will hopefully satisfy the still thirsty for knowledge. ","All texts are brought together in the section background materials.","The second way to use the toolkit: consulting a key word list","By clicking in the main menu on 'key words list' the list is entered and clicking on the chosen word will lead to a description of the subject, either in the section problems, in the solutions, dynamics or background material.","The third way to use the toolkit: directly to reading materials","The reading  material can also be entered directly, by clicking on 'reading materials' in the main menu.","The material is grouped in chapters: civil society, organisations, change, management&leadership, gender&diversity, action, communication and a last chapter called 'extra'.","This contains some suggestions to support the change agent or consultant who helps the organisation to explore a problem and implement a solution.","For whom","This toolkit is intended for NGO's involved in some kind of developmental work.","You can either apply the toolkit to the whole organisation or to on a part of it.","In applying the toolkit to a department, the idea is to relate all the topics to the level of that department: goals refer to department goals, management only refer to the department's management and so on.","The toolkit may be used by an organisation as a whole, or by (sub)groups, discussing together the choices to make, or by a single member of the organisation, being a manager or a worker.","Beyond the limited possibilities of the toolkit","Some organisations will make their way through the material, able to find the relevant reading material to help understand the problems of their organisation and to start some organisational change.","But for other organisations the toolkit may be a too limited instrument.","The help of a skilled outsider may be needed to define more thoroughly the nature of the organisational problems and to find and implement appropriate solutions.","A group of NGO consultants in the region, involved in the development of this toolkit, may offer some help.","Names of consultants:","* These problems are based on interviews with representatives of NGO's in former Yugoslavia and with Dutch trainers and consultants who worked with NGO's in the region from 1995 till 2003.","MANUAL OD TOOLKIT","./en_manual.htm","6,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[7]=new Array("Read: Action","Read: Action 1: Strategy : checklist","Read: Action 2: Negotiation skills","Read: Action 3: Ten golden rules for Lobbying","Read: Action 4: A strategic scenario","Read: Action - overview","./en_read_action.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[8]=new Array("Read: Change","Read Change 1: Strategizing change, implementation of changes","Read Change 2: Change and the sense of urgency","Read Change 3: Resistance to change","Read Change 4: Strategic positioning and strategic management","Read Change 5: Trends","(Read also solution 8: Changing the organisational culture).","Read: Change","./en_read_change.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[9]=new Array("Read: civil society","Read: civil society 1: A list of possible NGO contributions, deduced from practise and literature","Read: civil society 2: Definitions of civil society","Read: civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society","Read: civil society 4: NGO's and development action","Read: civil society 5: Reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society","Read: civil society 6: Code of conduct","Read: civil society","./en_read_civil_society.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[10]=new Array("Read: communication","Read: communication 1: Internal communication, points of departure and planning.","Read: communication 2: Participation and public support as effects of communication","Read: communication 3: Research and public support","Read: communication","./en_read_communication.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[11]=new Array("Read: Extra: some notes for change agents or consultants.","Read Extra 1: Technique of the exploratory interview","Read Extra 2: The main styles of consultancy","Read Extra 3: Diagnosing an organisation","Read Extra 4: A dynamic way of thinking","Read Extra 5: Dynamic diagnosis:  helping questions","Read Extra 6: Examples of dynamic diagnoses","Read Extra 7: Organisations.","How to understand the dynamics of an organisation.","Read Extra 8: Knowledge, skills and attitudes of the change agent or consultant.","Read Extra 9: Capability: do you make a good consultant?","Read Extra 10: Strong and weak points of the change agent or consultant","Read Extra 11: Process or expert","Read Extra 12: Rules of thumb for the change agent's analysis and recommendations","Read: Extra: some notes for change agents or consultants.","./en_read_extra.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[12]=new Array("Read: gender & diversity","Read: gender&diversity 1: On tokenism","Read: gender&diversity 2: Diversity in Organisations","Read: gender&diversity 3: Gender policy: goals and actions","Read: gender & diversity","./en_read_gender_diversity.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[13]=new Array("Read: management & leadership","Read: management & leadership 1: Some aspects of management or leadership.","Read: management & leadership 2: Differences between management and leadership.","Read: management & leadership 3: A consulting (or coaching) style of leadership","Read: management & leadership 4: Human Resource Management","Read: management & leadership 5: External and internal steering of organizations: the stick, the carrot and the sermon","Read: management & leadership 6: Empowerment through Core Qualities","Read: management & leadership 7: Power","Read: management & leadership 8: Feminist leadership","Read also solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read: management&leadership","./en_read_management_leadership.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[14]=new Array("Read: Organisations","Read: organisations 1: Structure of organisations (Mintzberg)","Read: organisations 2: Some basic organisational requirements","Read: organisations 3: The learning organization","Read: organisations 4: Evaluating and monitoring","Read: organisations 5: Summary of: From pioneer to professional","Read: organisations 6: Summary of: The fan of mainstreaming","Read: organisations 7: Fundraising","Read: organisations","./en_read_organisations.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[15]=new Array("Solution 1 A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","The problems in your organisation may be caused by insufficient organisational clarity.","Even if other, more dynamic reasons, account for the problems in your organisation, it can help to introduce clear structures and procedures for decision making.","They can be considered the basic hygiene of the organisation.","If introduction of clear structures and defining authority levels wont make the problem disappear, you should look elsewhere to find deeper reasons for malfunctioning.","Maybe you have to look at the problems or symptoms again or start a discussion in the organisation about the question: what is bothering us most?","We discuss the following topics:","1.1.","External organisational goals.","1.2.","Internal organisational goals.","1.3.","Division of labour and coordination mechanisms.","1.4.","Decision making structures.","1.5.","Responsibility, authority, accountability.","1.6.","Management: giving direction, creating support, caring for stakeholders.","1.7.","Output and measurement of achievement","1.8.","Financial management","1.9.","Organisational culture.","1.1.","External organisational goals.","An organisation that starts its life in troubled times will not spend time on defining goals.","But when the situation becomes more stable, definition of aims becomes a necessity to set priorities, to measure success and to adapt strategy.","Goals should be formulated:","concrete, measurable, feasible and inspiring.","Goals function as a leverage for the organisation, they indicate the gap between the actual situation and the desired one.","The way in which they do that should be clear and motivating.","The goals should be defined in concrete terms in order to avoid confusion what is meant.","They should be operationalised and made measurable, in order to be able to establish success, or to adapt a strategy.","They should be feasible.","Unrealistic unreachable goals will create frustration.","Success is the most powerful source of  intrinsic motivation.","Success can only be reached of goals are feasible.","They should be inspiring.","Although feasible goals should also be inspiring.","They should invite and motivate.","Goals are based on a vision of the organisation on the society and on the (genesis of the) problem at stake.","The vision is indicative for the own identity of the organisation, expressing something of the own ideology","NGO's should consider to contribute in one way or another to the development of civil society.","Both topics: societal analysis of the problem from an ideological point of view and the role of the NGO in civil society, need a broad discussion amongst the members of the organisation.","Beware of the pitfall of endless vison discussions.","Don’t strive for complete agreeing on anything by anybody.","The question should be: do we agree sufficiently to start the actual work? Remember that the result of a discussion on vision is always temporarily.","A vision should grow.","Goals and vision should not be static but dynamic.","Goals need some maintenance from time to time.","If the external situation changes over time, the goals probably will undergo some modification.","The process of close re-examination of goals is called strategic positioning.","If you want to know more about methods to establish goals, read the appendix: strategic positioning.","If you want to learn more about the role of NGO's in civil society, read the appendices related to civil society.","1.2.","Internal organisational goals.","We make a distinction between two types of internal goals:","internal goals which meet the needs of those people who want to join the organisation","internal goals directed towards the quality of the organisation.","Internal goals based on the needs of the target group.","Organisations founded to fight societal oppression of minority groups are sometimes very attractive to join for members of those minority groups themselves.","They hope to meet fellow minority group members, for reasons of socialising or mutual assistance.","Members of oppressed groups, for instance homosexuals, hope to be helped to fight for acceptance in their own environment (coming out) and some hope to find friends and an atmosphere of understanding and support.","The organisation may become a haven of safety.","It is OK if the organisation wants to satisfy these needs of the target group.","But sometimes the motivation of people joining the group does not go further than the satisfaction of their own needs.","If it is only a phase, it is no problem.","Some organisations need a phase in which the members of the target group join, share and become strong together, before going into action.","But if the organisation sticks to no more than this internal goals it becomes very internally oriented.","If organisations concentrate on internal goals, without combining them with a political sting, societal action or external projects, the NGO can not be considered as a co-builder of civil society.","Internal goals directed to the quality of the organisation.","Other internal goals are those which provide conditions for realisation of the external goals.","For instance: goals in the area of personnel (concerning recruitment, training, education, career planning etc.), finances (concerning sources of income, cash flow, financial systems, accountability and control), information and communication (concerning internal and external communication, important topics and means of communication), automation (what will be computerised and how), organisation (size, geography, cooperation, etc.) organisational culture (establishing, maintenance and change of organisational culture) and so on.","These goals are sometimes called the PICOF goals, the acronym for personnel, information (including automation), communication, organisation (including culture) and finances.","The essence of internal goals should have a connection with the external goals, and no elements contradicting the external goals.","(For example: No racial prejudices in the personnel department of an organisation fighting discrimination.) 1.3.","Division of labour and coordination mechanisms.","The organisation needs people to do the job.","In the beginning a small band of  people do all that is needed more or less together.","As the organisation is growing the question will arise how to distribute the work and how to guarantee that the work is done as meant.","In other words: division of labour and coordination.","The structure of an organisation can be described as the sum of the ways in which the different tasks are divided and the way  in which these tasks are coordinated.","The organisation consists of several groups needed to realize the goals.","Conform Mintzberg, a well known author on organisational structures, we discern the following groups:","The operating core.","Those who do the job for which the organisation was founded.","In the beginning an organisation needs no more than just the people who together are the operational core.","The strategic top: the leaders or manager.","As the organisation grows and the division of labour amongst the operators becomes more complex, a manager is needed.","The top is responsible for the functioning of the organisation as a whole and is charged with the supervision over the satisfaction of the needs of important other stakeholders of the organisation.","  The middle managers.","As the organisation grows, not only the operating core needs a manager, but also the managers need a manager.","A middle management is created, a line of authority between the strategic top and the operating core.","The middle managers are controlling the work of the units beneath them and feed the strategic top with feedback.","The techno structure or staff.","The still growing organisation will use standardisation to coordinate the work.","The responsibility for this standardisation is with people who are outside the 'line', the hierarchical line from the top to the operating core.","This techno structure gives advice to those members of the organisation who have power of decision: the middle managers and the strategic top.","The techno structure consists for instance of the personnel department, the department of planning and control, the quality control, the financial department. ","The support staff.","People who  give general services to the rest of the organisation: administrative, a canteen, the cleaners, a department of PR and so on.","Mintzberg discerns also five types of coordination:","coordination by mutual adjustment: agreements in a informal consultation;","direct supervision: a person who gets the responsibility over the work of others, instructing them and controlling their activities;","standardisation of working processes: for instance instructions how to assemble a car;","standardisation of output: the result is fixed, not the way how to attain that result;","standardisation of skills: a description what should be the necessary training for the job (nursing).","The skills are often acquired outside the organisation, via a formal education or training.","One can often see a sequence of these five mechanisms of coordination with the grow of the organisation.","As the complexity is increasing and the degree of difficulty of the work is growing, mutual adjustment as the main coordination mechanism will turn on again.","Mintzberg describes six basic organisational structures (called: configurations), each of them characterised by the importance of one main coordination mechanism:","Simple structure: based on direct supervision, the strategic apex has the key position.","Vertical and horizontal centralisation..","Machine bureaucracy: based on standardisation of working processes.","Techno-structure has the key position.","Limited horizontal decentralisation.","Professional organisation: based on standardisation of skills.","Operating core has key position.","Vertical and horizontal decentralisation.","Division organisation: based on standardisation of output.","Key role for the middle line.","Limited vertical decentralisation.","Ad-hocracy: based on mutual adjustment.","Key role for the support structure, sometimes together with operating core.","Selective decentralisation.","Later on Mintzberg added a sixth configuration:","The idealistic organization: based on standardization of norms and values.","In the beginning the NGO probably has the configuration of the simple structure.","Later on the most probable development is towards a professional organisation or a adhocracy.","Some remarks on the different structures.","simple structure.","Advantages:","The centralisation has the advantage that the strategy gets feedback by intensive knowledge of the work of the operating core.","It functions very flexible and informal.","Commitment is one of its main characteristics.","People can easily identify with the organisation.","Disadvantages:","Everything depends on the sanity and caprices of one person.","Low level of internal democracy.","machine bureaucracy","Advantages:","Only efficient structure apt for situation in which people have to perform an integrated serial of simple and recurrent tasks in a precise and consistent way.","Disadvantages:","Risk that people will be treated as means of production, with serious consequences for individual work satisfaction.","Problems tend to be transported upwards (because of the coordination mechanism of direct supervision).","Problems in adapting or changing strategy.","Professional organisation. ","Advantages:","Structure gives room for internal democracy and a high level of autonomy for the operating core.","Provides opportunities for the professionals to enhance and perfect their skills.","Disadvantages:","Main point of reference for professionals is outside the organisation (because of the coordination mechanism of standardisation of skills, vocational training).","F.i.","their ethics are professional ethics, not so much based on the values of the organisation.","Professionals tend to neglect the needs of the organisation.","Difficult to correct professionals who are incompetent or neglectful.","Sometimes organisations react on this problem of these elusive workers by intensifying control and direct supervision (belonging to the machine bureaucracy).","But such an intervention is never effective.","Authority moves from the operating professionals to the managers.","But measures of control remove also their responsibility.","As an effect the professionals will become passive","Division structure","Advantages:","Economic profit.","Disadvantages:","The head quarter tends to assume too much control, thereby harming the autonomy of the divisions.","Adhocracy","Advantages:","Adhocracy is the only configuration which combines internal democracy with a minimum of bureaucracy","Ideal for unique projects","The structure provides room for creativity Disadvantages:","Unfit for normal, routine work","Many aspects of the organisation are and stay unclear: who is the boss, low group loyalty because of rapid changing task forces, undefined functions, unplanned personal development, internal competition for means, recognition and appreciation.","Risk: politicised configuration ('un panier de crabes'),","Communication is essential (because of the main coordination mechanism of mutual adjustment) but time consuming and can lead to conflicts.","If the most striking characteristics of a NGO are those of the machine bureaucracy, one should reconsider the configuration.","If you want to know more of structures and their functioning read one of the books of Mintzberg.","For instance:","Mintzberg on management.","The Free Press, NY, 1989","Or read organisations 1: structure of organisations.","Or read organisations 2: some basic organisational requirements.","1.4.","Decision making structures.","When talking about decision-making we should make clear what kind of decisions have to be taken.","Strategic decisions relate to the position of the organisation in the outside world, the relationships of the organisation with outside groups etc.","The main issue is the choice of external goals in relation to the needs of the society.","Strategic decisions relate to the organisation as a whole and should be taken centrally (central decision-making body with the highest authority like the general assembly, the plenary council, the board or the management).","Sometimes the legislation, the chosen legal form of the NGO, decides which body is the highest in authority (like the general assembly in an union), but sometimes the organisation has to make internal agreements on which body has the highest authority. ","Organisational or tactical decisions relate to the intermediate space between the central or high levels of the organisation and the operating ones.","It could concern for instance a modification of structure on behalf of the realisation of a new policy.","The question who should make these kinds of decisions depends on the specific matter at stake.","Operational decisions relate directly to the operation of concrete tasks, like establishing operating norms, planning of work processes etc.","They have to be made as close as possible to the place where they are raised, especially by the operating core.","NGO's usually have rather democratic opinions about the influence of people on the decisions that touch them.","They regularly want to involve externally target groups in decisions concerning the realisation of policies and internally the members of the organisation.","Ownership, efficiency and accountability are the key-words in deciding who have to be involved in what kinds of decisions.","Fowles: (In: Striking a balance, a guide to enhancing the effectiveness of NGO's in international development.","Earthscan, 2000, London)",".....Decisions often relate to plans about activities and budgetary resources, therefor the planning and budgeting system must support a participatory approach.","NGO's decision-making must be consultative enough for shared ownership of the outcomes and directive enough to be timely, while ensuring accountability.","The reason for opting for a consultative process (internally and externally) is that people more willingly modify their behaviour when they participate in problem analysis.","The task for managers is to treat their role in decision-making as one of facilitating a group process with the right people and then discharging their final authority in a transparent way...","Tips (borrowed from Fowles):","effective decision making requires","only involving those who directly control a situation and those affected.","mediation and guiding the process rather than directing it.","a culture of openness and self-criticism.","clear allocation and mutual understanding of who is responsible for what.","1.5.","Responsibility, authority, accountability","The responsibility for a task should always be accompanied by the authority needed to execute that task and the obligation to report about it (accountability).","If a certain task is delegated, the authority and the obligation to report should be delegated as well, while the end responsibility stays with the one who delegates.","The people who have to perform certain tasks on behalf of a team should also have the disposal of the authorities that belong to the task.","The way in which accountability is arranged should be clearly defined.","People, especially professionals, cannot work in a situation in which they have to perform certain tasks, without the power to make decisions in the realm of their operating duty.","Taking away their authority, f.i.","by making central decisions concerning their tasks, means taking away their responsibility.","1.6.","Management: giving direction, creating support, caring for stakeholders*","A lot is written about management and management tasks.","Look at the background materials and the list of readings.","At this point we want to cite only Fowles who lists the critical tasks of NGO managers:","to provide a consistent image and moral ethos","to retain and promote sensitivity to deprivation and injustice experienced by the poor","to build a culture of association within the organisation which encourages sharing and promotes reflection for learning","to bring coherence between members' interests and organisational objectives","to act as a 'holder' for the psychological needs and frustrations of staff and volunteers","to reconcile individuals' values and contributions with collective needs","to put the process of personal relations into sustainable development","to enable followers to become leaders themselves","In Fowles' description leadership and management are very close.","Recent studies indicate that the main distinction between leaders and managers is their adherence to moral principles.","This is especially important for leaders of NGO's, which are more than average value driven organisations.","In line with the summing up of Fowles we want to emphasize three aspects of management: giving direction, creating support and caring for stakeholders.","giving direction","Giving direction means a strategic responsibility (look at: strategic positioning) combined with a coaching style of management.","The manager/leader should be constantly aware of the organisation's mission, in order to be able to encourage the members of the organisation to direct their efforts in pursuing those goals.","This goes for the formal external goals, but also for the internal goals.","(Look at: goals).","This awareness and this orientation towards the desired behaviour should be in strict concordance with the values and norms of the organisation itself.","The art of leadership is to let the goals inspire and connect individual drives of  members of the organisation with the goals of the organisation.","creating support","Creating support is meant as an external as well as an internal activity.","The most important group to support is the staff of the organisation, being themselves the only tool of the organisation in attaining its goals.","People have to put their utmost (talent, time, energy) for the sake of the organisation.","They only will continue to do that is they feel recognised, appreciated and supported.","People want to take responsibilities and they want to grow.","The management should take care for conditions in which they can do so by creating a consulting and coaching style, offering influence on major decisions, putting responsibilities and the accompanying authorities deep in the organisation and looking for possibilities for empowerment and growth.","Systematic support can be provided by regular evaluating the work of each member of the organisation, f.i.","by appraisal interviews.","That is why a systematic evaluation has to be introduced, in which each one's performance is judged by objective standards and by earlier records.","Such evaluations have to be followed by consequences directed to improvement: instruction, training, education and so on.","In this the worker and the organisation bear both a part of the responsibility; the organisation for providing opportunities for improvement, the worker for realising the agreed targets of improvement.","If a sequence of such judgements and the accompanying investments do not lead to progress, than a decision should be made: either placing the person in question elsewhere in the organisation, on a position more fitting the persons competences, or dismissal and help in finding another job.","Who want to know more on directive resp.","supportive management:","Hersey and Blanchard: Management of organisational behaviour.","Prentice Hall, NJ, 8th ed.2002 taking care of stakeholders","An endeavour for managers should be to take care of stakeholders, transforming them to different endorsing and supporting groups by attuning their different interests.","The most important group of stakeholders consists of the people who legitimise the existence of the NGO: the constituencies, the clients, the grassroots.","Other formal stakeholders are the staff (see above), the board, the funders, the collaborating government, other NGO's and other comparable organisations and institutions.","A NGO performs well if it succeeds to satisfy the rights and interests of the (primary) stakeholders in keeping with its mission, while at the same time recognising and taking into account the rights and interests of the other stakeholders.","To realise that the manager or leader has to keep in touch with all the different stakeholders, striking an optimum balance between their multiple perspectives, opinions, rights and interests.","One way to keep the stakeholders involved is to inform the stakeholders and to listen to them and to make the organisation accountable to them.","A manager should thus realise a threefold accountability: primarily towards the primary stakeholders, secondly towards funders and thirdly towards peers and other interested parties.","1.7.","Output, measurement of achievement and learning capacity.","The main task of the manager is to realise the goals of the organisation.","Core question in this challenge is: does the NGO reach its goals.","Even if it is hard to answer this question, all efforts should be directed to provide information for the answer.","The NGO should not be satisfied by vague indications, by guessing, assuming or hypothesizing the results.","Only if clear results are measured and presented the NGO can adapt its strategy, can measure its effectivity and efficiency, can appraise its working methods and the effectivity of the work of the staff.","Moreover: only measurement of achievement makes the NGO legitimate towards the constituencies and accountable towards donors.","Input, output, outcome, impact.","One of the problems is that NGO's tend to measure their results by measuring input, or in the best case by measuring output.","For instance: an input measurement is: we developed three different training programmes for different target groups.","An output measurement, in essence measuring the effort, could be: we have trained 50 persons of regular institutions.","But what really matters is the question if that training led to the intended results, the effectivity of the efforts: how much better did the trained people perform after the training.","In other words: outcome is more important than output which in turn is more important than input.","Even more important than the outcome is the solution of the original problem.","Leads the training to the desired change: the impact of the work of the NGO.","In order to be able to measure the results of the work, the start should be to assess the original problem.","Making the results operationally can be very difficult, because much of the results have to do with attitudes and behaviour of people (outcome).","What is needed are indicators of the matter that will be measured.","Who wants to know more about measurement of achievements: most big donor organisations can provide monitoring and evaluation systems and -if needed- training in assessment procedures.","learning capacity","The best way a NGO may improve its impact, its quality of aid, quality of management, quality of systems, methods or processes, its organisational quality and its quality of contributing to civil society is to build in ways of systematic reflection.","One of the methods could be a self assessment.","For those who want to know more about self assessment:","Read: Fowler: Striking a balance.","especially the chapter on Growing Organisational Capacity.","Contact CYSD, a NGO in India.","CYSD developed an organisational self audit for NGO's (OSANGO) in English, based on South Asian input.","cysdbbsr@sancharnet.in","Or contact Espiral, a Mexican NGO for the Spanish version of the OSANGO, based on Latin American input.","Espiral: espiral@planeta.apc.org 1.8.","Financial management","Financial management in NGO's coincides for a big deal with looking for funding and reporting to donor organisations.","However important the accountability, the donor often causes an administrative burden, at the costs of management attention to more directly goal related activities.","One of the problems related to funding is the preference of many a donor for project funding, which leaves hardly any room for the NGO organisation to finance its own plans and budgets.","Programme funding provides more possibilities for flexibility and own decision making of the NGO's themselves.","But donor organisations are not always receptive to the arguments in favour of  programme funding.","For the solidity of the organisation, a NGO should have a planning and budget system.","Budgeting in essence is planning translated in money.","It describes what should be performed by whom, with which resources, in which quantities.","In this way, budgeting is an important tool of management.","Its enables the management to manage the processes in the organisation, to define the results and thereby offering the possibility for control, feedback and readjustment.","But this plain description not always fits with the feelings of the workers in a NGO.","A strong identification of the workers with the goals of the organisation or with the interests of the clients will lead to a lower sense of costs.","Limitations of financial resources will be felt as a loss of quality.","That is why financial control, coming from the management, the donor or the government, soon will be experienced as hindering.","Especially by the professionals in the organisation.","Just another reason why financial management in NGO's is not always the most grateful job to do.","But when the management succeeds in making the professionals co-responsible for managing budgets, the resistance may disappear.","A planning and budget system includes:","performance agreements in terms of outcome","allocation of budgets to responsible departments, units or teams in the organisation","budgets are allocated at the same level as the authority level for approving expenditure","agreements on moments of critical reflection, evaluation and learning","transparency at all levels of the organisation","clear ways of accountability","In terms of financial management the organisation should prevent to be fixed too much on time-expenditure relationships, instead of measures of change in terms of output or outcome.","Budgets should be structured in such a way that they enable teamwork rather than supporting top-down management control.","Who wants to know more about financial management of NGO's:","Read: Fowler: Striking a balance.","A guide to enhancing the effectiveness of non-governmental organisations in international development.","Earthscan, 2000, London.","1.9.","Organisational culture.","Whatever structure a NGO may have, the organisational culture will be at least as decisive for its success.","Managers have a special responsibility in feeding and maintaining the strong aspects of the organisational culture.","The personal model set by the manager or leader may strongly affect the dominating culture.","Fowler (Striking a balance) gives the example how arguments defending a certain system of remuneration unveil organisational culture.","Measure the differences between the level of remuneration professional staff receive and that what they could gain if working in the commercial sector.","Arguments that remuneration should be determined by comparably sized commercial 'caring' organisations refer to business as benchmark, where organisational culture and incentives will be shaped accordingly.","Where leaders who use norms of responsible behaviour towards the poor will tailor their remuneration and life style accordingly, a different signal is sent and staff respond accordingly.","Donor organisations often have a different organisational culture, partly because of the influence of national culture on organisational culture.","Dealing with donors demands resisting the tendency to copy the donor's culture.","Managers should care for the organisational culture, ensuring that it reflects the central values.","Ongoing sharing of values is crucial.","Common energy has to be put in assuring that the organisation, its working methods, approach, systems, structure and treatment of personnel reflect these values.","Who wants to know more about organisational culture:","Read: Schein: Organisational culture and leadership.","Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1987","And read solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Who wants to know more about national cultures:","Read: Hofstede: Cultural Consequences.","Beverly Hills, Calif, Sage, 1980","* Stakeholders are all the people who hold an interest (=stake) in the organisation such as clients, supporting groups, donors.","See further explanation at Taking care of stakeholders.","Solution 1 A: building or restoring organisational hygiene","./en_solution_1a.htm","32,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[16]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 6: Empowerment through Core Qualities (based on Daniel Ofman's theory)","Each individual has positive qualities.","Searching for these positive traits and strengthening them is called empowerment.","Ofman's theory on core quadrants presents a method for identifying and strengthening each individual's positive characteristics.","Each core quadrant comprises four concepts: core qualities, pitfalls, challenges and allergies.","Core Quality " Pitfall","Allergy Challenge Core Qualities","A core quality is an individual's specific strength, something he/she is good at, or for which he/she is often praised by others.","To the person him- or herself it is a matter of course: anyone can do it.","It is an inherent quality that can either be suppressed or developed.","Examples: Decisiveness, considerateness, carefulness, courage, orderliness, flexibility Pitfalls","A pitfall is a transformation of a core quality; not the opposite, but 'too much of a good thing'.","The positive aspect goes too far, turning a strength into a weakness.","Examples: Helpful becomes meddling.","Careful becomes fussy.","Flexible becomes capricious.","Yet there is a positive quality behind every transformation.","The underlying core quality can be found using a negative label (pitfall).","Examples: Someone who acts inflexibly, may have decisiveness as a core quality.","Someone with an unyielding attitude may be a go-getter at the core.","N.B.: this concerns behaviour: an individual is not really inflexible, but he or she behaves inflexibly.","Challenge","A challenge is the positive opposite of a pitfall.","Having identified the negative, transformed behaviour, one can start looking for the challenge.","Examples: In a nagging person, the positive opposite is patience (and the core quality decisiveness).","And: in a capricious person, the challenge is orderly behaviour (and the core quality flexibility).","The core quality and the challenge are complementary qualities.","The objective is to strike a balance between the two.","If the challenge is underdeveloped, the core quality must be improved to find the balance.","Example: It is not necessary to become less decisive, but to develop more patience, resulting in a patient decisiveness without nagging.","Or: find a balance between flexibility and orderliness.","Allergy","The core qualities can also be used to identify potential conflicts with the environment.","People tend to be allergic to too much of their own challenge in other persons.","The allergy is 'too much of a good thing' of the challenge, as well as the negative opposite of the core quality.","Example: The negative opposite of the core quality decisiveness is passiveness.","Too much patience may also degenerate into passiveness.","The more people are confronted with their own allergy, the greater the risk they run of ending up in their own pitfall.","Example: The decisive individual starts nagging in response to too much passiveness in another individual.","Example of two core quadrants:","straightforward " aloof","obsequious empathizing","decisive " nagging","passive patient Learning from encounters using the core quadrant","What happens when two similar people, e.g.","two decisive individuals, meet? They often respect each other.","In certain circumstances, they can turn out to be two nagging people.","They can identify each other's pitfalls.","What happens when two opposites meet? Often this results in contempt, characteristic of a situation in which an individual is confronted with his or her allergy.","That confrontation makes the individual vulnerable, tending to end up in his or her own pitfall.","This awareness may help the individual to identify his/her own pitfall.","People are usually allergic to the 'too much of a good thing' they themselves need most (their own challenge).","In other words, they can learn from people they have a hard time getting along with.","When an individual encounters someone whose behaviour he or she is allergic to, that individual may also consider such behaviour as the 'too much of a good thing' of the other's core quality, his or her pitfall.","Looking at it from this perspective may serve as an instrument for an individual to help the other person find the core quality behind that pitfall.","If this is successful, that core quality may represent a perfect basis of cooperation with one's own core quality.","Read: management&leadership 6: Empowerment through Core Qualities","./en_read_management_leadership_6.htm","6,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[17]=new Array("Solution 1 B: Reorientation of mission.","Some problems in the functioning of an organisation can only be tackled if the organisation starts to reflect on its mission.","We cannot list all problems that should be immediate cause for a reorientation, but we sum up some:","the feeling exists that the organisation wants too much","the goals are too vague or diverse","there is no actual relationship of the NGO with problems in society","people come to solve personal problems instead of working on the goals of the organisation.","the NGO plays no role in the development of civil society","the atmosphere stuck to the nineties","people do not share because of a non-intervention principle","the external; environment has changed","the client system has changed","other competitors do better","What could a NGO do to reflect on its mission?","The NGO should rethink the problem, the context and its own possibilities, as if a new organisation would be founded.","In the following a sequence of steps will be described.","For the sake of clarity they are described as if it are separated steps.","But in reality the steps are phases which take place more or less as parallel processes.","Those who want to know more about the process of reflection upon the positioning of the own organisation in a changing world:","Read also: strategic positioning.","Establishing the problem in society (the legitimacy for the existence of the NGO).","One of the reasons the NGO was founded was to contribute to the solution of a problem in society.","(Sometimes a NGO was founded 'from behind the writing desk', without examining the real problem in the community.","In such a case the absence of a real relationship between the NGO and the people for whom the NGO has decided to work for, is the core problem.","Maybe the NGO could start again?)","The first step in reorientation on mission should be to redefine the actual problem.","What is the actual problem in society that legitimated the existence of the NGO?","(For some NGO's this question will lead to the confrontation with the fact that the problem has changed, is partly resolved or has disappeared.","Or the population suffering from this problem has changed.","Maybe the NGO could shift its purpose? Or maybe it is better to reconcile oneself with the idea of closing down the organisation?) 2.","Analysing the problem.","Some work has to be done in order to grasp the factors which have led to the problem, which maintain or even feed the problem, or factors which led to diminishing it.","Only when such an analysis is made, the next question: what are we going to do, can be answered.","The community, target group, clients, or other involved parties should take part in this analysis phase.","Those who analyse the problem will make a natural use of their own frame of reference, including own opinions, visions, ideology etc.","The use of a variety of thinking-lines will offer a  variety of possible causes, underlying mechanisms, structural obstacles and so on.","Do not try to reduce the number of angles, nor fight other visions or opinions.","A rich and divers harvest can help to define later on what could be the most desirable points of impact.","Later on the members of the NGO will have to agree on the main characteristics of the problem and its dynamic factors.","(For some NGO's this analysis phase will unveil the moment of truth.","Maybe the problem will be differently analysed, depending on the actual frame of reference of those who join the analysis.","Maybe  a dividing line shows up, between those who still stick to their original ideology related analysis and those who developed their vision, or those who more or less 'fresh' use different approaches to understand and explain the existence of the problem.","If the NGO will continue its work on the problem, such differences have to be sorted out, because really divergent analyses will lead to divergent approaches.","If not, a process of splitting up is one of the possibilities.) 3.","Reading the context.","The next step is carefully drawing up an inventory of the actual context in which the problem exists.","Who is already working on the problem? Are there other NGO's, competitors, or peer organisations, GO's or commercial initiatives, involved in alleviating the problem? Do have people themselves reached a certain level of self organisation?","(One of the main objectives of NGO's is sometimes to influence the regular institutions, GO's for instance, to improve their poor services.","If reading the context makes clear that other organisations successfully have been mobilised to take part in the solution of the problem, the question: what makes the own NGO distinctive? becomes pregnant.","Maybe the NGO wants to go on its own distinctive way? Maybe it wants to change its purpose? Or if success is obtained, it wants to be closed down?) 4.","(Re)formulating the goals","Having examined the actual problem and its context, the next question is: what is needed at this moment? The NGO should redefine its goals.","Take into account that goals should be inspiring, concrete, measurable and feasible.","(At this moment a NGO might discover, or might be confronted with the fact that its goals were too big (in built failure), too small (in built disappointment), too vague (impossible to measure success), too global (not leading to logic strategies) or too less inspiring (thereby not able to evoke extra energy and enthusiasm).","Readjustment is necessary).","(Re)defining the core competence of the NGO.","Thinking about goals goes parallel with thinking about the NGO's main competence.","If the action power is overwhelming then action goals will come to mind.","If the members of the NGO are professionals, then other goals, which may  offer the possibility to contribute to their realisation by using their expertise, will come to mind.","We can make a rough distinction between","political action, aimed at reforming public service policies and at restructuring political economy: policy advocacy, lobbying, public awareness, public education or public mobilisation, monitoring compliance, reconciliation, mediation and","hands on goals, aimed at empowerment of communities, strengthening local institutions and sustained improvements in physical well being: delivering material services,  social or health services, financial services, capacity building, process facilitation, fostering linkages, reconciliation, mediation.","The first ones, the political goals, can ultimately lead to institutional reforms and good governance, the second ones to mobilising and strengthening civil society itself.","Most NGO's will link their activities at both levels.","(Point 4 and 5 are probably the phases in the reorientation process in which division lines between the parties involved will become clear.","The founders and old activists want to continue the political work, while some of the professionals want to concentrate on delivering services.","The desired situation is to combine both.","Read: the fan of mainstreaming.","If an agreement is not reached, the NGO should think of splitting up.","Look at solution 7.) 6.","Inventory of resources needed to realise the goals.","Once the goals are set, (and in reality occurring in a parallel process)  the NGO should think about the resources needed to realise the goals.","How many people do we need to do the job, what kind of people are we looking for in terms of expertise.","(Some NGO's will recognise at this moment the need for further professionalisation.","Especially when they have to come to the recognition that the work to be done -often service delivery and influencing regular institutions--  needs more than only good ideas and  good intentions.","This moment of truth is sometimes painful for the founders of the organisation, who often still think that the right ideology and the right attitude will suffice.","Look at solution 2.)","Other questions are: what kind of material resources do we need (housing, office, telephone, computers etc.) and what kind of budgets do we need.","If budgets are available they can be used of course.","But in the process of reorientation funding shouldn't be considered to be conditional.","Ideally the job has to be done without any external subsidy.","Volunteering is the best base to start the work.","If the group succeeds, a next phase could  be mobilising for financial resources to spread and consolidate the work.","(NGO's used to be subsidized will find this phase the most difficult one.","It demands courage to reconsider the own work and to make a restart without funding.","It is especially difficult if people in the meantime became dependent upon the paid jobs.","But nevertheless, if earlier funding has stopped, and it seems impossible to find new sustainable financial resources,  reconsidering the work on a voluntary base is the only way in which the necessity to go on with the work can become clear.","If the organisation decides upon going on in a different way, maybe the organisational culture should be reconsidered.)  7.","Deciding if and how the NGO will start or continue.","Depending on the results of the discussions in the former phase, the NGO has to decide on its future.","The options are:","growing from pioneer to professional (look at solution 2)","back to the status of being an action group (look at solution 3)","diversification of activities (look at solution 4)","sizing down the organisation (look at solution 5)","combining action and services (look at solution 6 and read: the fan of mainstreaming)","splitting up the organisation (look at solution 7)","changing the organisational culture (look at solution 8)","merging with another organisation (look at solution 9)","closing the organisation (look at solution 10)","Another option is to look for further professional OD help.","(look at solution 1A) For those who want to concentrate on enhancing the effectiveness of the NGO, read:","Fowler: striking the balance.","A guide to enhancing the effectiveness of non-governmental organisations in international development.","Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, 2000.","Solution 1 B: Reorientation of mission","./en_solution_1b.htm","11,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[18]=new Array("1.1.1.1: Complaints of workload being too high is the most common way to express vague discontent.","It may hide a range of other problems.","Before taking action to reduce workload, try to objectify the workload by measuring and comparing it with the workload of workers in peer organisations and in GO's.","If comparison indicates that the complaints of the workload are subjective: try to explore underlying problems.","If measurement and comparison turns out to justify the complaints:","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Intermezzo 1.1.1.1","./en_im_1_1_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[19]=new Array("Solution 10: Closing down the organisation","Organisations have a life cycle.","They are founded, grow and mature, and, most of them, die.","Some organisations seem to have eternal life, but those are the exceptions.","One only has to consider the huge number of organisations founded every year to realise that most of them have to disappear again.","Considered this way disappearance of organisations is not a disaster, it just is part of a natural process.","But that is an analysis at a distance.","Because, if attached to an organisation and its ideology and goals, and having spent a good deal of one's working life in it,  the process of closing down an organisation can be mournful and difficult.","The key questions in this topic are:","when to decide closing down an organisation?","how to prevent the closing down becoming a trauma? When to decide closing an organisation.","Many good reasons exist to take the decision to shut up an organisation.","The 'best' reason is to conclude that the goals at which the organisation was aiming, are realised.","Some organisations, anticipating this moment, choose to broaden their scope and to add other related goals in their mission, in order to legitimate their prolonged existence.","If this move is endorsed by the constituencies and the members of the organisation, it is OK.","But sometimes, if this search for a prolonged organisational life becomes a bit too assiduous, suspicion may rise continuity being of higher value than the goals themselves.","Another good reason to close down the organisation, is that the once unique pioneer is now just one between peers.","Especially if the leaders or the other members are deep down still the same pioneers, loving to undertake something new and exiting.","Yet another reason could be the impossibility to compete with market oriented peer organisations.","If subsidy is no longer available and all kinds of commercial initiatives enter the same market, it can be hard to survive as a former subsidised organisation.","The turnover in organisational culture needed for reaching the same level of competition, is sometimes too much asked.","The same goes for an organisation who is forced to become market oriented, while the still existing demand in the market apparently has no buying power.","In such a case there is no other solution then to close down and/or going back to the status of action group.","(Look at solution 3.)","Other reasons, less obvious honourable but nevertheless compelling, can be  found in insolvable internal conflicts leading to the conviction that muddling through might harm the case more than closing down.","How to prevent the closing down becoming a trauma?","In any case actively closing down an organisation is much better than letting it die.","The process of gradual dying, even if it is a natural death, will cause the outsiders opinion that the organisation was a failure.","Actively closing down makes such an end-conclusion less likely.","There are two divergent ways to actively close down the organisation:","celebrate its successes","setting the still existing problem on the agenda.","In both cases the organisation could organise a congress or hold a meeting for the constituencies, peer organisations, related institutions and representatives of the government.","Successes are presented and the main question is put forward: who becomes the next relay team who will fight the still existing problems.","Solution 10: Closing down the organisation","./en_solution_10.htm","4,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[20]=new Array("Solution 11: Conflict resolution","If the work and communication within an organisation is seriously hampered by internal tensions it may be necessary to do conflict resolution.","When attending to a conflict","Tensions between people fluctuate, and are a normal part of life.","The way in which tensions are felt, are expressed and are dealt with are probably greatly influenced by upbringing and by the cultural context.","Certain people and certain cultures are likely to be more confrontational.","Others show great patience - but remember.","Or have found ways of dealing with conflicts via indirect communication, involving third parties.","Also what is being interpreted as being a conflict may vary.","Someone can be involved in conflicts in two ways.","A person may herself develop a conflict with a person or a group of people within the organisation.","(Or may become entangled in  a conflict with another organisation).","Or someone may be called upon to help individual people, or groups of people within an organisation to bring their conflict to some sort of solution.","When to involve yourself in a conflict? A reason may be when the work is suffering under unresolved tensions or conflicts.","Or when people within the organisation are suffering.","When you decide to take steps you need to be clear about your role and position.  What is your relationship to the issue at stake? Are you yourself a party to the conflict? Or are you outside the conflict, able to clarify and help solve the problem, or to mediate or arbitrate between the conflicting parties? Dealing with a conflict one step at a time","As it usually takes time for conflicts to reach some kind of boiling point, it often will also take time to solve the conflict.","Again there are cultural and personality differences to take into account.","Some people explode and simmer down again rapidly, others are more likely to build up tension in a slow and invisible manner.","Step a: Blowing off steam","Often when it becomes clear that 'something has to be done about this' the first thing needed is for everyone to tell their story, to express their side of things, to blow off steam.","In such a first step of conflict resolution the most important thing is that all the parties involved receive their share of time, attention and empathy.","So that the first edge of pain and/or anger maybe softened somewhat in the telling of what happened.","There are no guidelines on how long this first step should take.","Some people need a lot a time, need to release a lot of emotional tension before they can move on to step 2.","Some are able to do this with all the actors involved and present, others - depending on (individual) background - may find this too confronting to do it in public or to show their emotions at all.","Step b: Sharing all available information","The second step of conflict resolution is to share and compile the available information surrounding the conflict in some kind of rational manner.","In part this will be information about what happened  in chronological order.","Important information is how people perceived and interpreted the events which occurred.","Nearly always conflicts are in part based on lack of information - about certain facts or events, and most certainly about the way others perceived the events.","Be aware about differences related to class, culture, gender and individual background that influence the way behaviour and events are seen.","Step c: Analysing the (many) aspects of a conflict","A third step is to analyse the available 'data'.","At this point it is possible to develop working theories about the background of the conflict, the reasons for its occurrence, the relationship it bears to the organisation or the people involved.","Step d: Finding feasible solutions","The final and fourth step is to use the analysis (step 3) in order to decide upon certain solutions - which will hopefully solve the conflict, or keep it at a certain level, or prevent the involved people or parties from flying off the handle again in the near future.","The need to analyse and to explicitly talk about a certain conflict, in itself is tied in with cultural habits.","This means that these four steps (blowing off steam, sharing information, analysing the conflict, and reaching feasible solutions) may be a Western way of doing things.","Not only the way conflicts emerge, but also how they are dealt with will carry elements of culture and cultural differences in them.","Some people for instance may find it easier to communicate via others.","One way when working in a diverse situation is to talk in the beginning about the way people have learned how you should behave during conflicts or how to deal with tensions.","Analysing a conflict : how?","Analysing a conflict can be done in two rounds.","Firstly one can try to pinpoint the issue at stake - and to identify other issues which play a role in the background of the current problem.","Secondly one can decide what kind of conflict it is - because different kinds of conflict require different solutions.class=Section2> a.","Identifying the conflict issues.","Often a conflict does not stand on its own.","There may be background issues or problems at stake.","For instance in the organisation.","Or within the people.","Or in the development of the organisation and its goals (people have conflicts for instance when things are not going so well in the outside world).","An issue may also be the way in which the conflict-partners deal with the conflict.","How is their behaviour? Are they involving other people, appealing to authority, using 'dirty tactics'? What is and what is not acceptable, even in the realm of conflict?","In this way it is possible to identify the immediate reason for conflict - but also the many more complex background issues involved.","The advantage of analysing in this way, and deciding what are the most important issues involved, is that the solutions are likely to be more successful.","Without such an enriched analysis, chances are that one issue is dealt with, but the conflict will re-emerge in the near future as part of another question.","Identifying the kind of conflict.","There are three main types of conflict.","Conflicts about limited means.","There may be only so much money, or time, or power to go around.","Who gets it? Who gets more respect than who? In a meeting there may be more or less attention or respect for different people.","Conflicts about values.","These are conflicts about what is right or best, and what is wrong.","They involve moral issues, questions of belief- and value-systems, issues of religion of ideology.","Conflicts about identity.","Although connected to values, conflicts about identity are more fundamental.","These are conflicts about the tension between the sexes, between ethnic groups, or cultural backgrounds.","Between class backgrounds, people of different sexual orientation.","The identity-conflicts may involve chosen roles (e.g.","motherhood or not), or may involve professional roles (e.g.","doctors against nurses).","Kinds of solutions","The different kinds of conflicts require different kinds of solutions.","Conflicts about limited means may be solved by:","creating more (money, time, respect.....)","agreeing to a system of distribution (criteria to be agreed upon)","by fighting it out, and winning or losing (for instance when the conflict is about who gets a job - may the best person win).","Conflicts about values may be solved by:","convincing the other person","identifying common values, and approaching the problem from the basis of that agreement, consensus.","agreeing to disagree - and respectfully living with the differences.","Conflicts about identity may be solved by:","assimilating (adjusting to the dominant identity to be acceptable)","learning to live with the differences (understanding, acceptance)","separation (in order to avoid the constant battles and pain)","Conflicts about identity are the most painful.","Because parties may claim that the problem is not the behaviour of the other but the way the other is.","Between men and women there is an ongoing and very fundamental tension about  the subject of being.  Finding a solution in this kind of conflicts may take a lot of energy.","Strategic conflict intervention","You need to decide whether you are in a position to involve yourself in a conflict.","And when you decide to do so, you should prepare a strategy.","In an early stage the outbreak of a conflict might be prevented.","Is a common agreement still feasible? Can the conflict be contained by appealing to reason, by indicating to all involved that really the conflict can be solved, by making the issue manageable?","In other words, can you calm everyone down, and bring the issues back to more reasonable proportions?","If not you may decide to expand the problem.","You try  to clarify and attack the problems at a more fundamental level.","It has to become clear that there are more and bigger questions involved than people may have thought.","The right strategy is the one which works - which allows the (right) issue to be looked at and dealt with - and which allows people involved to release tension, take steps to solve things - and to get back to work.","A wrong strategy is one which allows the conflicts to go on simmering under the surface, to explode again at unexpected moments.","Or a strategy which involves such a battle that it injures the people and/or the organisation.","Again many of these decisions will be correct or not within the given social and cultural context.","Summary of aspects of conflict resolution Dealing with a conflict one step at a time:","Blowing off steam","Sharing of information (and interpretations)","Analysing the many aspects of the conflict","Finding feasible solutions.","Analysing the different lines of conflict:","What are the immediate issues at stake in the conflict?","What are background issues influencing the present conflict","(in terms of the people, the organisation, the outside world)","What are the different types of conflict behaviour which people use.","Analysing the different types of conflict, which lead to different solutions:","Limited means","creating more (money, time, respect.....)","agreeing to a system of distribution","by 'fighting it out', and winning or losing","Conflict of values","convincing the other person","identifying common values, and approaching the problem from the basis of that agreement, consensus.","agreeing to disagree, and (respectfully) living with the differences.","Identity conflicts","assimilating (adjusting to the dominant identity to be acceptable)","learning to live with the differences (understanding, acceptance)","separation (in order to avoid the constant battles and pain) Choosing a strategy","Prevention  (by early agreement to systems of sharing, common values, clear roles)","De-escalation (calm people down, describe problems reasonably, find common ground)","Escalation (by showing tensions, describing issues as matters of principle)","Solution 11: Conflict resolution","./en_solution_11.htm","12,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[21]=new Array("Solution 2: From pioneer to professional CHARACTERISTICS OF A PIONEER ORGANISATION","New and young NGO's are often characterised by a pioneer attitude: everything is done by everybody, no model exists, the organisation knows hardly any structure, rules or regulations, a lot of time is spent on consulting together.","Main characteristics of a pioneer organisation:","THE FOUNDER.","The founder has a central role accepted and appreciated by the others.","CLIMATE.","The climate is characterised by feeling connected and by solidarity: we are a big family.","The leader knows everybody personally and knows details about personal background and circumstances.","CULTURE.","The organisational culture (social intercourse, common norms and values) of the pioneer organisation is characterised by commitment to the goals, to the people and to the organisation, and by hard working and making overtime.","THE LEADER.","The leader knows all the nitty gritty of the organisation, did all the various activities him/herself, and is capable to demonstrate how things should be done.","COMMITMENT.","People are committed by ideology.","A strong engagement exists, aimed at changing the world.","The demands of change are equally applied to themselves and to the way in which the organisation is functioning.","Theory and actual behaviour should be congruent: horizontal, responsible, equality etc.","ABSENCE OF STRUCTURE.","No rules, no job descriptions, no descriptions of authority.","In other words: no formalised communication.","DISTRIBUTIONS OF TASKS.","Everybody in the organisation does the work that suits him or her.","The decision what tasks shall be done is dependent on the qualities and preferences of the workers.","(Instead of deciding which task has to be done and looking which person is fit for it).","The factual organisational structure is an invented one, but it works all right.","WORKING STYLE.","People are improvising, the level of flexibility is high, the organisation is capable to offer tailor-made solutions.","RELATIONSHIP WITH CLIENTS.","There is a strong relationship with clients.","In such organisations the spirit of pioneering prevails.","No models exist, except those produced by the organisation itself.","No beaten roads, only paths invented by the organisation itself.","A self confident scouting mentality exists.","People belief in the own mission and success will be obtained in a non conventional manner.","There are no specialists, only those who became specialist by doing the work in the organisation, for instance the founders or the people who joined in at an early stage.","The work is continuously innovative, because of lacking models.","But the organisation knows what it wants.","There is a lot of reflection.","Trial and error is the main working method.","The members of the organisation feel unique.","If the organisation happens to live for a longer time the pioneers continue to outbalance the others, sometimes partly because the leaders cannot stand  other person equalling them.","Sharing the power and handing over the organisation to new members is often a painful process.","What is PROFESSIONALISATION?","It is hard to keep the quality of the output on the same level, especially in a growing organisation in which the output is realised value driven, by personal motivation, commitment and willingness for action (inspired by the charismatic leader).","The complexity of the work increases, a need for specialists develops, people who started the organisation are no longer in the majority and new ideas about how to work arise.","The monopoly of the founders is waning.","The increasing complexity, the expanding size of the organisation and the growing quality demands of the outside world are reasons to take steps in the direction of professionalisation.","Professionalisation shows itself in the fact that all functions and positions in the organisation develop the tendency to consider themselves as a real profession, including the claim to be autonomous.","Management, middle management, technical and supportive staff, all of them professionalize.","People start to see themselves as professionals, with all the belonging qualifications, rules, standardisation and so on.","Quality because of commitment will be gradually replaced by guarantees because of high education of the workers, standardisation of skills and procedures.","This professionalisation leads to the streamlining of the organisation.","The identity of the workers will gradually shift from being connected to the organisation towards being connected to the profession.","The intuitive behaviour of the founders is regulated, everything will go more and more by the book.","Such professionalisation is seen in practically all organisations stemming from an ideological movement: feminist women organisations, organisations of volunteers, action groups, environmental organisations, aid organisations etc.","A main trait is that values and ideology are replaced or supplied by acting business-like.","Norms on how things should be done are no longer only derived from the founders but are also related to an external source.","ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES","Pioneering has big advantages: sharing the goals of the organisation is self-evident, the talent to improvise is big, there is a strong commitment to the clients, the members of the organisation are alert, motivated, they all want to dedicate themselves to the organisation.","The organisation is vital and sparkles with energy.","The working attitude is catching, the members are proud of the organisation, congruence between goals and behaviour is strong, ideals prevail.","Disadvantages of pioneering: there is hardly any routine, everything is invented again and again.","The investment-output rate is unbalanced (often the organisation delivers a relatively small output with the effort of lot of people), the organisation often exhausts the human potential, the organisation depends too much on the leaders, their ideas are not open to question.","Working professionally has big advantages: quality is more or less guaranteed, knowledge and expertise from the outside world can contribute to quality by means of specialisation.","There is less dependency on persons.","Efficacy and efficiency can be pursued.","Disadvantages: dedication and motivation are not self-evident, innovation is enclosed in structures.","WHAT IS GOOD? PIONEERING OR PROFESSIONALISATION?","One is not by definition better than the other, but is only good or better related to a specific objective.","The way the organisation is structured, is it blocking the realisation of the goals or the output? Or does it fit just fine.","The desirability of a certain development has to be weighed by the possibilities of an organisation to react adequately.","If for that sake the pioneering organisation should make a step towards professionalisation, the organisation should consider to do so.  If a bit more of pioneering would be profitable for the professional organisation, than the organisation should look for an artful manner to return some of the pioneer mentality back again in doing the work.","For pioneers the question arises which advantages can be kept and combined with the advantages of the professional organisation.","Sometimes it could be wiser not to strive too hard for professional characteristics.","Sometimes it is important to strengthen the pioneer characteristics.","Sometimes it would be in the interest of the organisation to shift a bit in the direction of the professional organisation, sometimes it is just a matter of survival to change radically towards being a professional organisation.","No general rules exist.","PIONEERING WITHIN A PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATION.","Nowadays one can notice some planned design of organisations.","Big bureaucratic organisations try to put in a pioneering attitude in some parts of the organisation, because of flexibility, innovation power and company spirit.","Sometimes they succeed, but often one can notice tensions and problems on the borders between the mother organisation and the pioneering part.","The same border collisions can happen between the established organisation and projects designed to operate in a pioneering way.","Problems (from the angle of the pioneer):","the acceptance of the output of the project is undermined by the outside world's image of the bureaucratic mother organisation.","Who believes in speed, high quality, client centred products of a part of an organisation known for its lumbering bureaucracy?","changes within the mother organisation, which are necessary for the success of the pioneer, are hardly manageable for the small internal functioning pioneer.","contact beyond the borders between the pioneer and the mother organisation creates difficulties in understanding each other.","Both communicate from their own vision and organisational culture.","the pioneer is measured by two standards.","The pioneer is expected to use innovative new methods, but the way of working that goes with this methods is not appreciated.","At the same time the pioneer is judged by the standards of the professional organisation.","The consequences of misunderstanding and problems could be that the pioneers become isolated, thereby reducing their effectiveness and ultimately losing the backing and support of the mother organisation.","This picture may seem very cheerless, caused mainly by summing up all possible problems  The solution is: try to keep in contact with the mother organisation, keep communicating, make her co-responsible for the success of the pioneering project, not in an offending way, but in a cooperating way.","Look for allies within the mother organisation, start alliances with potential allies.","Keep communicating on obstacles, pitfalls, possibilities and resources.","Try to involve others in analysing the situation.","WHAT HAS THE MANAGER OR PROJECT LEADER TO DO IN ORDER TO DISCOVER THE IDEAL ORGANISATION?","A process of strategic positioning may contribute to the choice which level of pioneering or professionalism should be obtained or maintained.","Future developments demand something of the organisation.","Would it be possible to adapt to future conditions by some characteristics of the pioneering or the professional organisation?","The crucial question in planning the organisational design is the possibility to get rid of the disadvantages while keeping the advantages.","For those who want to learn more about strategic positioning: read: strategic positioning.","Solution 2: From pioneer to professional","./en_solution_2.htm","11,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[22]=new Array("Solution 3: Back to the status of action group.","If whatever the NGO has tried finding funds has proved to be impossible, the option of returning to the status of action group could be considered.","Funding and the lack of funding is an overwhelming burden for NGO's and its members.","As long as NGO's depend on funding, the presence of funding can mean the survival or death of the organisation.","The choice to go on without funding, returning to the status of action group, is not always easy.","Maybe the attitude of the members of the organisation has changed over time, maybe people are dependent of their income earned in the organisation and other paid work may be scarce.","The quality of the output of the organisation is sometimes dependent on the expertise of paid staff members and on housing (shelters for instance), matters that have to be paid for.","Nevertheless, some organisation would do better if they changed their identity back to being a volunteering action group.","Differences between pressure group and labour organisation","Many differences exist between being an action group or a labour organisation.","Being an pressure group means: the freedom of choosing political angles, a high level of autonomous decision making, the necessity to be ahead of the mainstream ideas and opinions, cherishing a fighting spirit, the possibility to take ideology as the main or even only guiding principle, and maybe above all: the freedom of not compromising, of no adaptation, of no moderations of pretensions.","Some pressure groups gradually change their identity.","Sometimes because developing and offering alternative services is one way to realise one's goals.","In this way some pressure groups become voluntary service providers.","If the services are successful and funding is available, then the next step often will be to be funded for the operational work.","In this gradual way some pressure groups lose their original status and become NGO's with proposals, paid staff, policy plans, accountability procedures and funders, So far so good.","Some NGO's are doing quite good, are successful in their new identity and develop a natural growth.","In those cases the development from activist to paid staff member is a desirable one.","But for other activists the situation is different.","Some of them are unhappy with the developments.","They just do not fit in this new situation.","Some even may define the actual situation as being enclosed by capitalist manoeuvres, bereft of their vitalising political work.","Even if the NGO succeeds combining being an action group with being a labour organisation.","(Read: the fan of mainstreaming.) Motives for returning to the status of action group.","In some cases the organisation should no longer strive for funding, but return to a former phase, accepting the fact that its real identity is in being a pressure group.","What could be motives to do so? We sum up five.","the organisation (or the majority of its members) has grown mainly because of external interventions: big financial allocations, powerful assigners etc.","(Also look at: solution 5: reducing the size of the organisation.)","the organisation (or the majority of its members) feels forced to do activities that differ from the core competence or key identity, only in order to obtain financial resources.","the organisation (or the majority of its members) experiences that it not possible to do enough in the domain the organisation has been founded for, only for funding  reasons.","the organisation (or the majority of its members) feels sorry for gradually alienating from the activist roots and/or regrets gradually losing credibility in the eyes of those who make up the movement they once came from.","the organisation (or the majority of its members) has to admit that the growth of the organisation is mainly caused by contracting professionals who may do the job competently, but without the same affinity and ideological inspiration.","What could be reasons for not doing it?","the wish to return to an action group might reflect the fact that the organisation has lost its connections with the activist side of the scene.","Maybe the organisation is directed one-sided  towards being a market party, thereby neglecting its political angle.","In this case restoring the full scope of the organisation would be a better solution.","(Read: the fan of mainstreaming.)","the group within the organisation that would like to return to the status of action group is composed only of the founders/former activists.","Their wish could be considered as the problems of the pioneering leaders growing towards a more professional status.","(Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional)","If they persist in their preference, maybe splitting up the organisation would be  a more realistic option.","(Look at solution 7: splitting up the organisation.)","Solution 3: Back to the status of action group","./en_solution_3.htm","5,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[23]=new Array("Solution 4: Growth of the organisation","A process of strategic positioning (what kind of organisation do we want to be in a changed context in x years; read: strategic positioning.) may show that sticking to the actual strategy of the organisation may lead to dropping behind, against the wishes of stakeholders*.","The question then arises what could be done to keep the results of the organisation on a desired level.","The organisation has to look for strategic possibilities of choice:","a  strategy of positioning: how to be competing in the market","a strategy of spreading: how to spread: products or markets","an operational strategy: staying autonomous or cooperating with others.","These strategies are derived from commercial organisation, aimed at profit and taking care of the (above all financial) interests of the stakeholders.","But with a bit of fantasy these market mechanisms can also be applied to NGO's, as long as the different needs of the stakeholders are recognised and the values of the organisation are respected.","The three strategies could be translated as follows:","strategy of positioning: how to perform better, providing services 'with a difference'","strategy of spreading: how to reach and help more people, how to help them in other ways and how to reach and help other people","operational strategy: what could give better results in terms of effectiveness and efficiency: staying autonomous or cooperating with others? Strategy of positioning.","A NGO that really wants to respond to the problems in society (and thereby wanting to survive as a NGO) has constantly to improve its output, outcome and impact.","One of the forms of strategy is to strive for reducing cost price, or to improve products, differentiating products or services in such a way that they reach an uniqueness, perfectly matching the desires of the target group (Porter).","Analysing costs drivers and uniqueness drivers** is the base for methods to reduce the costs and to strengthen the uniqueness.","Features of uniqueness of market organisations (in the eyes of the consumer) are characteristics of the product or service, the service to the consumers, timing of delivery etc.","For NGO's the uniqueness may be defined by the priorities of the target group, probably always related to the effectiveness of the product or service, such as alleviation of suffering, strengthening autonomy, regaining dignity.","Everything in order to foster socially just, sustainable economies with accountable, inclusive systems of governance.","Quality management can be a main instrument in this strategy.","(Read: Fowler: striking a balance.","Earthscan, London 2000.","Especially the chapters: Improving and going on.) Strategy of spreading.","A well known matrix is that of product/market matrix (Ansoff), in which two strategies of growth are presented: expansion and diversification.","Two dimensions are used, one of products and the other of markets.","Each dimension can be differentiated in the categories existing and new.","In this way four combinations show up: existing markets and new markets, existing products and new products.","Spreading with existing products in existing markets is called: penetration of the markets.","Spreading with new products in existing markets is called: product development.","Spreading with existing products in new markets is called: market development.","These three together are called: expansion strategies.","The last one spreading with new products in new markets is called: diversification.","A simple rule is that penetrating new markets with new products is an activity full of risks and disappointments.","A spreading strategy should only be contemplated after considering related products in existing markets, or existing products in related markets.","NGO's are founded to reach some societal goal.","As long as success is not completely achieved, a NGO, analysing its products or services and the people for whom it is working, should always choose to reach and help more people of the chosen population.","In terms of the management science: market penetration is the first choice.","NGO's hardly ever will choose the strategy of diversification.","But a NGO can have good reasons to shift from the original key target group to other groups.","These reasons have to be related to the content of the work, the necessity to reach more or other people and the expected efficacy of the shift.","A strategy of growth in this way can also reflect a development of vision.","An example is the treatment of perpetrators of sexual violence.","Some NGO's, assisting victims of sexual violence and through the work mobilising politicians to change the law, may discover that in the long term nothing changes as long as the perpetrators of sexual violence are moved aside.","Some of these NGO's developed a programme to reach and treat perpetrators.","In terms of the spreading strategy they combined product development in a related market.","Operational strategy","In the management literature operational strategies have to do with the choice of staying independent or cooperation with others.","If interested read: solution 9: cooperation with others.","* Stake holders are those who have an interest (=stake) in the organisation such as the clients, the workers, the funders, the board.","** Drivers are factors that cause an upward move.","Solution 4: Growth of the organisation","./en_solution_4.htm","6,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[24]=new Array("Solution 5: Reducing the size of the organisation","Reducing the size of the organisation is sometimes necessary.","Especially when the analysis is made that","the actual size of the organisation is not caused by 'natural' growth, but by incidental (not structural) inflow of money","the organisation is too big for the work that has to be done.","Organisations develop a sort of 'natural growth'.","What is natural growth?","Organisations have a life cycle with different stages.","The pioneer stage is often the first stage.","Some organisations will never enter a second stage, because they stay the same, or they simply disappear.","This is no drama.","In the contrary, it is a natural and sane phenomenon: some organisations go on and survive, some will disappear.","The match between the organisation (its aim and its approach) and the needs articulated in society is the decisive factor.","Organisations who match well have a basis for survival.","If they enter a next stage in their life cycle this is considered natural growth.","This natural growth is sometimes frustrated by external intervention for instance by donors.","Donors normally want to fund organisations because of their programmes and impact.","But if donors are confronted with a sellers market (as once was the fact in former Yugoslavia, where donors were crowding each other out) then a unnatural 'inverse' situation may arise.","The struggle to be funded becomes a struggle to fund.","Donors are seriously looking for organisations to fund, mainly because they have an obligation to spend the in their homeland publicly collected or politically earmarked money.","This may lead to an insane situation.","The survival and growth of organisations is not caused by success, but by the over-representation of funding.","Natural growth is frustrated, and replaced by growth because of abundant money.","The main symptom of this unnatural growth is growth in size without accompanying organisational growth.","The structural and organisational characteristics of early phases in the life cycle do not develop into ripened structures.","The baby is growing but she still has to sleep in the same cradle.","The problems that may arise are consequences of this unnatural growth: often professionalisation of workers without professionalisation of the organisation: divisions and subdivisions with a strong central control, discontent among the workers, frustrated management.","In order to understand the unnatural growth we should look at natural growth.","Models of organisational growth.","Some people describe organisational growth in a three phase model, others in a five phase model.","We describe both.","The three phases of the organisational grow model of Scott.","(Scott: Stages of corporate development.","Harvard Business School, 1970)","The first phase is the small organisation with a small number of functions for the most part executed by the owner or founders.","Growth takes place by subdivision of the main functions and by developing support services like administration and cleaning and so on.","Other services are bought externally.","strategic choice: dependent on the personal aspiration of the owner/leader","structure: centralised with little internal differentiation.","research and development: by owner/leader","performance measurement: on a personal and subjective base","salary: without system and paternalistic","management system: personal","In the second phase the organisation grows towards a completely departmental organisation.","The division of departments will be done on the base of geographic expansion, by market development, or by the development of subdivisions.","The size makes it possible to contract own specialists and a technical and support staff is developed.","strategic choice: growth of the market, expansion by related products or markets","structure: centralised with a lot of internal differentiation.","research and development: independent department","performance measurement: impersonal, based on technical and economic criteria","salary: systematic and objectified","management system: delegation","In the third phase a multi-divisional organisation is developed.","The five phases of the organisational growth of Greiner.","(Greiner: Evolution and Revolution as organisations grow.","Harvard Business Review, July-August 1972, 37-46)","Greiner describes organisational development as the alternation of quiet periods of growth and moments of crisis that indicate a new stage.","Each evolution creates its own revolution.","Each stage has a typical style of management, each revolution has a typical management problem that should be solved to enter the new stage.","The first stage, that of the pioneer, is based on creativity.","Management is characterised by informality and dedication.","The first management crisis, leadership crisis,  shows that the management is no longer able to direct the organisation: the professional management enters the organisation.","The second stage is characterised by growth within a dirigiste approach.","The crisis is created by the lack of autonomy of the workers: the autonomy crisis.","The third stage is that of the delegation.","But top management will gradually feel that control is lacking: control crisis.","The fourth stage is characterised by reducing the management levels and strengthening of the central technical and support staff.","growth by coordination is developing.","At the end of this phase a bureaucratic crisis is showing up.","The fifth stage will be characterised by cooperation.","Sometimes based on mutual adjustment (meetings, talking, agreements) ending in a deliberation (consultation) crisis.","Some authors think that maybe a sixth and seventh stage will follow, characterised by business-like management ending up in anidentity crisis, followed by a style of management directed to human and environmental policy.","Absence of natural growth.","An organisation may compare its own growth with the growth models described above.","If the organisation is growing in size without organisational growth, one of the symptoms could be a continuing leadership and/or autonomy crisis.","The only solution for the problem of unnatural growth is intentionally reducing the size of the organisation.","It is a form of rebirth, making natural growth as yet possible.","Not all organisations will survive such a rebirth.","It is quite difficult not to see this as a set back.","It is like accepting a cut off of salary after a long period of automatic promotion.","It requires clear understanding of the dynamics that led to this situation, voluntary cooperation of all the people involved, and an absolute belief in the necessity of the existence of the organisation.","Some organisations will not be able to accomplish such a change.","But that is not per se a drama.","Some organisations will survive, others don't.","Such is organisational life.","Solution 5: Reducing the size of the organisation","./en_solution_5.htm","7,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[25]=new Array("Solution 6: Broadening the scope.","Broadening the scope is meant here to be a solution for two types of organisations:","those organisations who are completely task oriented, but who could be market oriented as well","those organisations who developed towards a market orientation and who lost their ideological inspiration.","For the first type it means going into the market and earning some money.","For the second one it means combining the commercial activities with action activities.","(Read also: the fan of mainstreaming) Broadening in the direction of being market oriented.","This development should only start after a thorough decision being made but in reality it often just happens.","Once the possibility of making money is there, the desire to do so will occur.","The urge to do so is seducing, not only because of the money itself, but because of the meta-meaning of money.","Being paid for the work is often experienced as a confirmation of the value of the work, of the competence of the workers and of the legitimacy of the organisation.","For the development of the organisation and for the quality of functioning, being paid may offer real advantages.","Being competitive on the market may give the organisation an injection of being entrepreneurial, energetic, costs conscious, saturated by the necessity of delivering quality and motivated to give its best.","The fact that products or services, once filling a gap, now can be sold in a competing market, is a thrilling one.","Subsidy is replaced completely or partially by profits as a commercially functioning market organisation.","The organisation may benefit of this change.","But there are also risks.","Such a change is not only a change from offering products for free towards selling products, but also a change in the accompanying organisational culture and in each one's personal attitude.","If the turnover to the market goes too fast or if the change is forced, the organisation might not survive the shock.","People might not be able to follow the change.","The buying force in the market might in the end prove not big enough.","A change like this should be made gradually, accompanied by well prepared internal discussions about the desirable and undesirable effects.","Pifalls of the hybrid organisation","Organisations who succeed in conquering the market are mostly hybrid: partly market oriented and partly subsidised.","This combination, if not managed well, may create all kinds of problems.","The non-market part runs the risk to become the second-rate part of the organisation, and if workers are spread over the two compartments, then a division between first- and second rate workers may occur.","Not because the best workers will enter the market part of the organisation, but because of the unconscious appraisal effect of paid work.","If money enters the organisation a firm mechanism will do its work, often resulting in: bad money drives out good.","In other words: the market will gradually take a bigger the piece of the cake, the organisation ending up in being almost completely market oriented.","This development may parallel the process of -sometimes unintentionally- fading of the originally natural ideological inspiration.","(Read: the fan of mainstreaming.)","For some NGO's this development this development creates no problems, other will get gradually unsatisfied and worried.","It raises questions about the ideological credibility.","Becoming market oriented sometimes means losing contact with the movement, the grassroots or other original constituencies.","Market oriented means being driven, in any case partly, by the perspective of profit.","The main question seems to be: is it possible to keep the ideological roots alive? Conditions for the survival of the ideological value-driven organisation which became market oriented.","From: the fan of mainstreaming, we borrow five conditions:","Financial independency.","Financial transactions are only made if they offer possibilities to realise the mission of the own organisation.","Combinations of activities.","Acting as a professional market party has to be combined with activist activities.","This means that the organisation is able to combine an efficient and business like objective planning with a somewhat anarchistic way of operating.","Acknowledging that both activities may have strained relations may help to give room to the ideological action side and to slow down the technical professional side.","Contemporary design of activities.","Actively looking for modern topics, alliances and means of communication.","Action or campaigning is not a step back to the era of action, several decades earlier, but an actual element in a broad intervention strategy.","Keeping the pioneer attitude and organising the counter offensive.","To avoid the development earlier mentioned as bad money drives out good the organisation should actively build in counter forces, intended to make the inspiration of the start into a continuous structural aspect of organisational life.","Organising debates to define the desired development of the organisation, discussing new problems for which's solution innovation is needed, assigning new-comers with important roles and functions, all of this it might help to counteract the routine, the technocracy and the cynicism of the ex-activists and to keep the ideological inspiration.","Alert leadership.A visionary and inspiring leadership is needed to balance the capricious edge between market and ideals and to keep the workers inspired.","Solution 6: Broadening the scope","./en_solution_6.htm","6,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[26]=new Array("Solution 7: Splitting the organisation.","Splitting the organisation in two or more parts is not a very self evident solution, but nevertheless sometimes a good one.","It should be considered an option if going on implies weakening the whole, or if staying implies renouncing new developments.","The big endeavour in splitting the organisation is to keep the dividing parts intact, and, if possible to keep in touch.","Quarrelling, blaming, and mutual efforts to destroy the other part should be avoided.","Splitting is no last choice.","Splitting up may be a very wise and mature decision, made for the best interests of both (or all) parts.","Considerations concerning splitting up the organisation.","What could be indications NOT to split up the organisation?","If various activities develop within one organisation, just the fact of variety should not be a reason for splitting the organisation.","In the contrary.","Different activities meeting each other in one organisation can be a rich breeding ground for linking and learning.","The art of managing an organisation with divergent activities is to create an atmosphere of curiosity and receptiveness.","Even if one part of the organisation houses activities for which a donor or funder is paying and the other part is producing for the market, even then both parts could go together in one organisation.","The hybrid organisation.","The organisation combining both kinds of activities is called a hybrid organisation.","It is not completely a task-organisation, in which a superior body -government, donor-  gives a task and a budget to carry it out, neither completely a market organisation, in which clients buy products.","(If an organisation depends massively on one big client, it functions de facto as a task organisation.)","Both types of organisations have their own culture.","Characteristics of the organisational culture of the task organisation are for instance: obedience, loyalty, absence of pursuit of gain, orientation at continuity.","The characteristics of the culture of a market organisation are: externally oriented, innovation minded, appraisal for assiduousness, eager to invest in survival, entrepreneurship, independency.","The major difference is that the decisive factor for continuity in task organisation  is not output but the appraisal of the assigner (who judges the organisation on more than only output).","While in market organisations the output is the one and only decisive factor for survival.","To combine both sets of values is not easy.","The law of Gresham says: market transactions will drive out task oriented processes.","Members of the organisation involved in market transactions will experience themselves as being somehow more valuable because people apparently want to pay for their products or services.","Client centeredness, a balanced relationship between investment and profit, it all comes naturally with market orientation.","If the management is not conscious of this dynamics, first and second rate workers and first and second rate activities will emerge.","Another risk is economical pollution (f.i.","overhead costs of the market part are accounted to the task part).","(Who wants to know more of the cultural differences between the commercial and the public domain, read: Jane Jacobs: Systems of survival.","A dialogue on the moral foundations of commerce and politics.","Random House, 1992.","Jacobs describes two systems of values which define people's behaviour at work: the guardian syndrome -especially in the public sector- and the commercial syndrome -especially in the private sector-.","A mix of these syndromes is, according to Jacobs, very unwanted and will lead to all sorts of anomalies.","She offers ways to preserve integrity.)","If the management succeeds to manage a hybrid organisation, both parts can learn a lot from each other.","Splitting up the organisation.","What could be indications to split?","Incompatibility of working methods.","Maybe the operational activities belonging to one part of the work are not compatible with the rest of the organisation.","For instance: a safe house needs security, invisibility and stability.","As a consequence of the work in the safe house some professionals develop new strategies to raise awareness with battered children.","The work needs a lot of publicity, visibility and action.","In such a case it could be a logical decision to split.","Externally motivated splitting.","A donor organisation may be willing to fund an activity if it is executed in a new organisational structure.","Growth of members.","Sometimes it is not healthy for people involved to stay in the same organisation.","If for instance some professionals desperately want to begin their own organisation, eager to be an entrepreneur themselves, to spread one's wings and to be responsible for the whole process, why try to stop them? Unfortunately this wish is often experienced as betrayal of the mother-organisation.","But another viewpoint could be to explain it as a mature wish to act independently.","The NGO could choose to deal with this wish, by agreeing on a certain division of labour, future cooperation and mutual assistance.","Solution 7: Splitting the organisation","./en_solution_7.htm","5,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[27]=new Array("Solution 8: Changing the organisational culture","Some problems of organisations have to do with the organisational culture: the way in which the organisation, including its stakeholders, use to act and think.","This organisational mental make-up is -more than structure or strategy- the decisive factor in obtaining success.","If the organisational culture is blocking success, the change of culture has to be considered.","When is the organisation's culture a problem?","Organisational culture is a problem when the way in which the organisation usually operates puts obstacles in the way towards achievement.","Some examples:","the goals of the organisation demand an external orientation of the members, but the organisational culture is characterised by internal orientation.","transparency is needed to be accountable and to function democratically, but the tradition to involve family members and to favour them, may makes transparency cloudy. ","being value driven as a main characteristic of a NGO stands not well with the businesslike attitude of our professionals.","productivity, being directed towards goals, may be hindered by the grown habit to intervene in each other's work, directing most of the energy to each other instead of to the product.","the not-outspoken rule not to intervene in each other's work (the non-intervention principle) may hinder the ideal working method of sharing ideas, innovations, solutions and problems.","because of the one-sided fixation on ideology, satisfaction of personal needs may be considered as forbidden.","a grown emphasis on output may have led to the situation in which reflection (base for learning) is considered a waist of time.","Organisational culture is not the result of just a decision, but the outcome of a lasting process, in which the attitude, beliefs and behaviour of people are gradually shaped.","Organisational culture, even if not objectively effective, is always a logical adaptation to a changed environment.","Organisational culture may be compared to coping mechanisms: once effective in one specific situation, but internalised, unconscious familiar, and hardly noticeable for the owner.","That is why change of organisational culture is not easy.","For the 'change agent' (the one who manages the process of change: the leader or manager or an outsider consultant) this entails:","modest aims combined with ambition","understanding the culture of an organization","flexibility in strategy 1) Modest aims and ambition","Modesty is needed because changing the 'personality', i.e.","'the soul' of an organization is very difficult.","Nevertheless, the organisation (as its own change agent), or the leader of an organisation as its change agent, or a consultant helping the organisation in its change, each of them has to be ambitious, because if they do not believe in this process of change, who else will?","The change agent has to be modest and ambitious at the same time, and that means stimulating and rewarding activities and persons heading in the desired direction.","Punishing people because they do not move quickly enough is not very helpful.","Motivating them in a positive way is better.","This is done by finding en stimulating the healthy nucleus that exists in every organization.","2) Understanding the culture of the organization","Organizational culture refers to what we call the personality of an organization: if the structure of the organisation is the body: the bone structure, the feeding structure of blood vessels and the communication channels of nervous system, then the personality or soul is the way people deal with one another, the values and beliefs that exist within the organization.","Restructuring an organization, in order to achieve a certain goal, often fails or gets stuck because the personality does not change.","That is why we focus on the culture of the organization when dealing with change.","Culture is defined as the collective mind-set or 'the software of the mind'.","Because it is often difficult to describe what the personality is, the following method can be used to understand the deeper cultural aspects of an organization.","The organisation's culture can be described in terms of Hofstede's 'onion':","the exterior layers consist of symbols (the building, the way employees are dressed, the 'language' they speak, the cars they drive, collective behaviour, etc.)","one layer deeper one can notice the 'heroes' or the 'anti-heroes' in the organization (the leader or founder who is 'worshipped' or who is being used as an example, thereby telling a lot about how to behave here in order to be accepted)","one layer deeper one can find the  rituals (eating together or not, greeting each other, how meetings are organized, celebrations of birthdays, etc.)","Through all these 'layers' one can see glimpses of the hart of the onion: the real values of the organization:","the inner nucleus of the onion, the values of the organization: what is really valued or devalued.","Be aware of the distinction between espoused and integrated values*.","Espoused values are the values people say are important to the organization.","But most of he times such espoused values delineate the future perspective of the organisation, not the actual moving values.","Integrated values are the values that actually appear to be important; the heart of the culture.","Sometimes there is a gap between the espoused and the integrated values.","This can be a real problem, especially when dealing with gender: lip service and no real intention to integrate gender policies.","* how does an organizational culture develop?","To understand the culture of an organization and its development, it is important to analyse its 'birth' and history.","For example: if an organization is born out of protest against the existing system, the fighting mood can be very strong.","However  useful that may have been in the beginning, such a fighting mood can become a hindrance, if the organisation sticks to it, without an actual reason.","This requires an attempt to understand the organization within its history and contexts, the traumas that influence the way they deal with external influences or change.","Understanding is more useful than getting angry.","So the change agent has to include the following elements in the analysis:","its products: 'what business are we in?' Every branch has its specific 'smells', sounds, characteristics.","its history: like a personality, what are the traumas, life events, happenings, etc.","How did the organization react and how does that still influence the way this organization deals with matters?","internal/external interaction (stakeholder's context): threats formed outside will have reactions on the inside.","* how does the culture within an organization sustain itself?","The answer is: by self selection, by selection and by socialisation.","Self selection: People who are potential candidates to apply for a job in an organisation will, unconsciously and immediately, compare the organisational culture of that organisation with their own 'lifestyle'.  A good deal of them will drop out, others will feel attracted.","Selection: the people that are responsible for new personnel act like gatekeepers.","They will not only investigate the way candidates meet the formal requirements, but they unconsciously compare the candidates with the dominant organisational culture, and again some potential candidates will be dropped.","This begins with the letters of application.","Socialisation.","To explain how socialisation works we watch an experiment.","A caged group of monkeys is confronted with a bunch of bananas on bungling from the ceiling.","There is a ladder placed invitingly just under the bananas.","Immediately some monkeys rush to the ladder.","As soon as they start to climb it they are all hosed down, not just the monkeys on the ladder but all the monkeys in the cage.","As they don’t like water they leave the bananas.","One hussy monkey tries again but the same thing happens, all of the monkeys are hosed.","Now they watch each other to make sure no one comes near the ladder.","Then one monkey is replaced by a new one unaware of ladder-water misery.","He sees the bananas and rushes to the ladder, but to his surprise is beaten up by the other monkeys.","Now a second monkey is replaced by a new one.","He approaches the ladder and is beaten up.","The first new monkey who himself had been beaten up participates in the mugging because he wont permit another monkey to do something he himself was not allowed.","This continues until all the monkeys are replaced by new monkeys none of them having the experience of being hosed down or even having a faint idea about it.","The reason why they wont permit each other to reach for the bananas has become of a metaphysical nature, it is simply not done.","Culture sustains itself through socialization, i.e.","'that is the way we do things around here'.  Here we wear ties.","With us we make funny remarks all the time.","Here we work like dogs, often 10 hours a day.","With us the client is really the king.","* Changing the organisational culture.","concentrate on positive aspects.","It is easier to enlarge the positive aspects than to get rid of the negative ones.","enlist the commitment of the top of the organization (being a model in their behaviour).","There should be a clear mission with concrete goals.","The top management should be involved.","Change may be proposed from within, quite often as the result of interaction with the outside world, but top management should be involved too.","organize bottom-up participation of people when defining the problem, in the analysis and solution-formation phase.","define only the outlines, let people participate in formulating what these outlines signify for their work.","external necessity .","Look for an external necessity to change.","New questions asked by target groups or donors can stimulate  the organization to make the necessary change.","3) Flexibility in strategy","Each and every organisation needs a well adapted strategy to be able to change its organisational culture.","Tailor-made approaches are necessary: what is effective in this situation with these persons may differ from other situations with other persons.","There are other general key factors for success to identify:","whichever variant is chosen for a successful strategy, it is important to make use of the existing energy.","a second element of a successful strategy is to keep in mind that support will be created by involving people and giving them the opportunity to analyse themselves, examining what the problem is and what would be the best solution.","a third element: always take into consideration the interests and needs of the persons which have to be motivated for the objectives of change.","Try to explore the meaning behind a view someone is taking.","Try to translate someone's stand in terms of  interests, needs, values, ideas, thoughts and emotions.","Try to brainstorm about solutions that cover as many similar and different interests as possible.","It will be clear that change agents need a broad arsenal of strategies to achieve the change objectives, and that they have to be willing to continuously adjust their strategies to respond to ever-changing relations and circumstances.","Read:","Hofstede: Cultural consequences.","Sage, Beverly Hill, California 1980.","Schein: Organisational Culture and leadership.","Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1987","Scott-Morgan: The unwritten rules of the game.","McGraw Hill, Londen, 1994","Jacobs: Systems of survival.","A dialogue on the moral foundations of commerce and politics.","Random House, 1992.","* Espoused values express the genuinely embraced core normative standards of an organisation.","An example: on the question: "what is the core value of your organisation?" members of a primary school could answer: "the prime value of our organisation is the intellectual, social and emotional development of the individual child." Such espoused values may come under pressure when external conditions provoke the integrated, less outspoken values.","When the school for instance is confronted with a demographic change which could lead to the need to merge with other schools in order to guarantee the best possible education, integrated values show up.","Continuity of the own job or being attached to the own team will concur the espoused values.","It is difficult to predict which values will come out as the winner.","Beware: espoused valued are no hypocritical values.","An organisation needs espoused values as a focal point for future actions.","Solution 8: Changing the organisational culture","./en_solution_8.htm","13,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[28]=new Array("Solution 9: Cooperation","Cooperation could be the solution for a variety of organisational problems, all related to insufficiently qualitative or quantitative achievement of goals.","For instance:","the own NGO wants to reach people in a specific area but has no distribution facility in that area.","A possible partner does have that facility.","the NGO wants to cover a bigger deal of a population of clients/consumers, but is too small, in terms of (wo)manpower, to succeed.","Together with other organisations it might be feasible.","the NGO can serve its target group in just one part of the problem chain.","Cooperation with other organisations active in other parts of the problem chain may lead to full coverage of the problem.","the NGO has a specific knowledge (f.i.","in the domain of social work)  but lacks other knowledge, relevant to its target group (f.i.","in the domain of legal advice).","Cooperation with other organisation might optimise the offer to clients.","Cooperation can be successful if investment and outcome are proportional.","The degree of cooperation, from incidental doing things together till merging with another organisation demands other kinds of investments.","SURPLUS VALUE","Cooperation should lead to surplus value.","We discern surplus value in the common product (output) and surplus value in the process of cooperation itself for the cooperating parties (process).","output","The surplus value in the output of an organisation can be defined only by this organisation.","Telling the others how profitable cooperation is for them should be avoided.","Surplus value in terms of the output is realised when the product is gaining by the cooperation in qualitative or quantitative sense.","(For instance: more content, more depth, broader reach, more clients, cheaper etc.)","Headword: enrichment of the product.","process","Again: the surplus value in the process can be defined only by each of the  cooperating organisations for themselves.","Surplus value in terms of the process is realised when the cooperating parties are gaining by the cooperation.","(For instance: more mutual respect, strengthening of the own identity, more fun in the work, getting smarter etc.)","Headword: enrichment of the own organisation.","OBSTACLES: power and disappointment.","Dissimilarity of the cooperating organisations creates fear of dominance, fear of being eaten by the other party,  being thrown into the shade by the other party.","A self image in terms of power or powerlessness and perception of the (attributed) power of the other can lead to a struggle for dominance.","The combination of high expectations and small effects can lead to disappointment.","TYPES of COOPERATION:","OCCASIONAL COOPERATION: when opportunity offers, when occasion arises","(agreement on action goal, incidental overlap of both own interests)","SUSTAINABLE COOPERATION (agreement on action strategy, bigger overlap of both own interests),","MERGING (agreement on identity and philosophy, interwoven own interests)....","TYPES OF INVESTMENT:","For OCCASIONAL COOPERATION invest in agreements.","Interests are partly touching: invest in agreements on input (costs) and profit, time table, go-no go decisions, (re)adjustments between times and final evaluation.","For SUSTAINABLE COOPERATION invest in attuning.","Interests are partly parallel: invest in bringing in line both's working methods and ways of cooperation.","Get to know the intentions on both sides.","For MERGING invest in sharing.","Interests are partly coinciding: invest in partnership by sharing collective goals, mutual trust, partly substitution.","Solution 9: Cooperation","./en_solution_9.htm","4,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[29]=new Array("SOLUTIONS OVERVIEW","1A.","Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","1B.","Reorientation of mission.","  From pioneer to professional.","  Back to the status of action group.","  Growth of the organisation.","  Reducing the size of the organisation.","  Broadening the scope","  Splitting up the organisation.","  Changing the organisational culture.","  Cooperation.","10.","Closing down the organisation.","11.","Conflict resolution.","SOLUTIONS OVERVIEW","./en_solutions_overview.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[30]=new Array("Reading section Action","Strategy : checklist","Negotiation skills","Ten golden rules for Lobbying","A strategic scenario Change","Strategizing change, implementation of changes","Change and the sense of urgency","Resistance to change","Strategic positioning and strategic management","Trends Civil society","A list of possible NGO contributions, deduced from practise and literature","Definitions of civil society","NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society","NGO's and development action","Reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society","Code of conduct Communication","Internal communication, points of departure and planning.","Participation and public support as effects of communication","Research and public support Dynamics","Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia","Traumatisation","Coming from socialism","Dealing with differences Extra: some notes for change agents or consultants.","Technique of the exploratory interview","The main styles of consultancy","Diagnosing an organisation","A dynamic way of thinking","Dynamic diagnosis:  helping questions","Examples of dynamic diagnoses","Organisations.","How to understand the dynamics of an organisation.","Knowledge, skills and attitudes of the change agent or consultant.","Capability: do you make a good consultant?","Strong and weak points of the change agent or consultant","Process or expert","Rules of thumb for the change agent's analysis and recommendations Gender & diversity","On tokenism","Diversity in Organisations","Gender policy: goals and actions Management & leadership","Some aspects of management or leadership.","Differences between management and leadership.","A consulting (or coaching) style of leadership","Human Resource Management","External and internal steering of organizations: the stick, the carrot and the sermon","Empowerment through Core Qualities","Power","Feminist leadership Organisations","Structure of organisations (Mintzberg)","Some basic organisational requirements","The learning organization","Evaluating and monitoring","Summary of: From pioneer to professional","Summary of: The fan of mainstreaming","Fundraising Solutions","1A.","Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","1B.","Reorientation of mission.","  From pioneer to professional.","  Back to the status of action group.","  Growth of the organisation.","  Reducing the size of the organisation.","  Broadening the scope","  Splitting up the organisation.","  Changing the organisational culture.","  Cooperation.","10.","Closing down the organisation.","11.","Conflict resolution.","Literature","Literature references & further reading","OD TOOLKIT","./en_articles.htm","6,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[31]=new Array("2.1.1.1: Complaints of workload being too high is the most common way to express vague discontent.","It may hide a range of other problems.","Before taking action to reduce workload, try to objectify the workload by measuring and comparing it with the workload of workers in peer organisations and in GO's.","If comparison indicates that the complaints of the workload are subjective: try to explore underlying problems.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","If measurement and comparison turns out to justify the complaints:","Look at dynamic 1: Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Intermezzo 2.1.1.1","./en_im_2_1_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[32]=new Array("Read organisations 6: Summary of: The fan of mainstreaming.","III","executing, developing alternatives","influencing politics","influencing regular organisations","mobilising, accusing, setting the agenda, offering alternatives","service delivery to market parties","MAINSTREAMING","From left to right there is a change in: ORGANISATION organisation:from the structure of an action organisation, via pioneering, to the professional organisation customer:from grassroots, via own agenda, to government, to marker parties financing:from no money, via funds or donors, to governmental subsidy, to payment for services to third parties WORKERS motivation:from anger, via combination ideology and work, towards profit and continuity relationship towards work:from volunteering, via a job with a salary that is linked 			to civil service scales, to entrepreneurship role:from activist and reformer of society, to professional, trainer or consultant ACTIVITIES tasks:from accusing and setting the political agenda, via influencing, to service delivery orientation:from task orientation, via mixed task and market orientation, to market orientation role grassroots:from being part of the grassroots, via being accountable towards the grassroots, to being disconnected to the grassroots ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE orientation:from external orientation, via internal orientation, to external orientation homogeneity:from a mono-culture, via insight in differences, to diversity values:from ideologically normative, to normative with respect to quality and professionalism.","Read: organisations 6: Summary of: The fan of mainstreaming","./en_read_organisations_6.htm","3,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[33]=new Array("1.1.2.1: Maybe important in this case:","decentralise more of the say a person has about his or her own task and balance it by the duty of that person to render account.","  people in the organisation should reach a shared opinion on the quantity of work a member of the organisation should perform.","the span of control of the middle manager(s), i.e.","the number of workers they are supporting and or controlling, should not be too small (risk of undesired meddlesomeness, or too big (risk of neglect).","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Intermezzo 1.1.2.1","./en_im_1_1_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[34]=new Array("1.3.3.1: To merge the early activists (often the founders) in a maturing organisation is a delicate matter.","It often fails and leads to splitting the organisation.","The best way to deal with it is to start a discussion aiming at redesigning the organisation with a well defined domain for the early activists.","The key to success in such a discussion is to remain a respectful attitude.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Intermezzo 1.3.3.1","./en_im_1_3_3_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[35]=new Array("1.5.4.1: If this is how you define the conflict  something serious is going on.","In an average NGO all the workers including those who are hired to do a job are firmly behind the goals of the organisation.","So the first step should be to check your definition.","Ask the people involved if they join your view.","A common definition may result.","If not:","Look at problem 6: money and at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Intermezzo 1.5.4.1","./en_im_1_5_4_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[36]=new Array("1.2.3.1: Always try to detect and mention fraud before it really is fraud.","In the beginning trespassing the rules or taking advantage of the opportunities is always of little importance.","People who notice the abuse or the small misdemeanours tend to minimize the seriousness, because they understand the reasons why and feel embarrassed in making a point of it.","But all scandals begin this way.","Fraud should be nipped in the bud.","The organisation should treat it straight and seriously, avoiding to conceal it or to keep it in small set.","The second aim should be to prevent fraud.","It can be done by creating an organisational culture in which one could say: "I joined in the activity myself, but looking back I think we did not do the right thing." Such a culture, together with rules, control and transparency helps to establish an organisation which is  fraud-proof.","And realize: fraud which comes to light without having been mentioned by the organisation itself always looks worse.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Look at problem 6: money.","Read: civil society 6: code of conduct.","Intermezzo 1.2.3.1","./en_im_1_2_3_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[37]=new Array("1.2.4.1: If this is how you define the conflict  something serious is going on.","In an average NGO all the workers including those who are hired to do a job are firmly behind the goals of the organisation.","So the first step should be to check your definition.","Ask the people involved if they join your view.","A common definition may result.","If not:","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Intermezzo 1.2.4.1","./en_im_1_2_4_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[38]=new Array("Read: Action 2: Negotiation skills","Negotiation is a part of a strategy to reach a goal.","It is what the different parties do when they face each other.","It is the crowning piece of a strategy in which they reach some kind of agreement, or someone decides to back down.","Negotiation should be distinguished from the process of convincing each other on the ground of content-arguments.","In such a discussion people may also change their mind, or reach some kind of agreement or compromise.","This is not a result of negotiation - but of going through the arguments once more and finding common ground.","Negotiation is involved when the strategy of mutual exchange is chosen - and sometimes when the strategy of pressure has been successfully executed.","The process of negotiation differs in different cultures.","There are certain ritualistic aspects involved in negotiation - and many subtle signs to be read and rules to be followed.","International negotiation is often difficult because the 'language of negotiation' between countries or cultures may not be compatible.","Negotiation within the strategy of mutual exchange or the win-win strategy","This kind of negotiation can best be compared to the process which takes place when haggling about the price of something one wants to buy.","The negotiation takes place within the context that both parties have something which the other one wants.","But if the price is too high, the 'sale falls through'.","One does not know exactly how much the other is prepared to 'give' - but one can be sure what is the minimum for which one is prepared to make a deal.","The skill in the negotiation lies in part in the preparation (being clear about what one has to offer, being clear what one wants to get for it).","It lies in having an idea of the worth of what one has, for the other party.","It lies in part in reading the signs that the other party gives correctly, and in following whatever rituals surround negotiation in a certain culture.","The art of negotiation lies in offering sufficient - but not too much.","And a relationship of respect: the feeling on both sides that it has been good doing business.","One step further is the win-win negotiation.","In this negotiation both parties benefit from the deal, as in the mutual exchange and you even try to prevent any loss for both.","Most energy is put into discovering the interests of the other party.","That means exploring the needs, interest and underlying assumptions of both sides.","Because by doing so you could discover that there are more common grounds than you "heard" the first moment when both express their point of view.","A point of view is a very brief summary of many underlying assumptions which lead to a "yes" or a "no" (totally opposite positions).","When you are able to distinguish between the point of view and the underlying assumptions you discover that perhaps you have some mutual interests, some different but not conflicting interests and some real opposite interests.","But you have enlarged the common ground and that makes it easier to formulate a solution of which both parties benefit.","This can be done successfully by:","giving as much information as possible about your own underlying assumptions","by distinguishing between the point of view and the interests","by putting energy in the most rich solutions: including as many as possible interests of both sides 2.","Negotiation within the strategy of pressure","The strategy of pressure is based on having power - power to make life difficult for the target .","Power to force them to do/give/grant you your wish, because if not, then........certain threats will become reality.","In order to prepare this kind of negotiation the following preparation is necessary:","The base of power:","gathering support, power, powerful people on one's side","showing that power, so that the other party gets some idea of what they are up against","trying to negotiate in such a way that threats are sufficient - that it is not actually necessary to execute those threats.","The first demand....and the final offer:","the strength of the first demand depends on the amount of power or influence which you have behind you","it is important to have a number of concessions worked out - to be able to come to some agreement it is necessary to step down a little","there has to be a final offer, a cut-off point.","If the other party will not mean those minimum demands, it is time to put the threats into action.","Timing of the negotiation:","Both parties will try to negotiate at the moment they have organized their support in the best possible way.","Early negotiation is a problem because there is insufficient time to mobilize people, to gather power.","Late negotiation may be a problem because after a while people get tired of a certain issue, and are not prepared to use their 'pull' anymore.","The negotiating party:","This is a difficult issue.","Who negotiates - and who do they represent? How do they communicate with the people they represent? This is especially difficult when one is negotiating for for instance an alliance.","How to choose the negotiation team - particularly how to ensure its cooperation?","A negotiation team which starts to disagree amongst themselves, makes life very easy for the other side.","This should be avoided.","It can help to agree beforehand who is the leader, and who decides when to do which concession.","And who makes clear during the negotiation process what power and threats should be considered? And who keeps an eye on the process of the negotiation: the correct steps, not too much overt aggression for example.","The process itself.","This will differ in different cultures.","In the Netherlands somebody chairs the meeting, and asks both parties to put forward their demands.","In a discussion which follows the parties threaten each other - in a polite way ("You must understand, I will not be able to stop the workers from going on strike, if you persist in carrying out this latest measure").","After a while both parties begin to concede certain points.","The chairperson keeps summarizing what common agreement has been reached - until the deal is clinched - or the negotiation is blocked.","And the threats become reality.","Communication surrounding negotiations","One of the most complex things is how to keep your people informed about the process of negotiation.","It is not possible to inform everyone immediately, or in detail - because this may harm the delicate balance within the negotiating process.","At the same time, if one does not give some idea about what is going on, one may loose support.","A lack of trust will weaken the position of the negotiation team.","This problem will be considerable when a negotiation is spread over a number of meetings.","And when the negotiation team is representing an alliance - and is therefore backed by a varied body of support-groups.","How often does each have a particular point which for them is of the utmost importance.","At times it will not be possible to satisfy everyone.","Either in their wish to be informed quickly - or in their wish to have their demands met.","The balance of trust can be very delicate indeed.","The negotiation team can do a number of things.","They can make clear at the beginning that they need room and time to negotiate - and that their first offer is not likely to be the final agreement.","They can agree to discuss an important offer at home before making a definite commitment.","They can agree to inform everyone fully after the deal has been clinched","They can agree to evaluate their own role, in the whole process.","Read: Action 2: Negotiation skills","./en_read_action_2.htm","8,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[39]=new Array("Read: Action 3: Ten golden rules for Lobbying","The lobbyist knows exactly what she wants (her item/question is concrete, measurable, feasible, inspiring and not vague, general or abstract).","Her item/question is written down on 1 A4; more information is available on request.","The lobbyist knows exactly who plays important roles in the decision making process:","who are the people who discuss her item,","who takes decisions,","who are advisers for the decision makers?","The lobbyist has made an analysis of the different and conflicting interests of the decision makers concerning her item, both short term and long term:","political (power)","personal (image, material benefits)","financial","effectivity/efficiency/organisational","other?","The lobbyist knows all about timing: what is going to happen when and where? Are there formal procedures, what are the informal rules and moments in decision making? What moments are most important to influence the process?","The lobbyist knows her allies and is cooperative if necessary (she is able to have different allies on different matters).","The lobbyist knows her enemies and other countervailing powers - she knows their lobbying targets and actions.","The lobbyist makes a list of persons & groups (her network) and means (like publicity, legislation), who are powerful towards the decision makers.","Out of this list, the lobbyist chooses an optimal combination of persons and means that she can mobilize.","The lobbyist has the possibilities (influence, funds, guts, allies, time, skills) to mobilize persons and means.","The lobbyist ALWAYS stresses the connection of her item with the interests of the decision makers and his or her advisers, and the interests of the persons she uses in lobbying.","The lobbyist maintains the relationship with her network: feeds them regularly with information they can use, compliments them with successes, is available for help.","Read: Action 3: Ten golden rules for Lobbying","./en_read_action_3.htm","2,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[40]=new Array("Read: Action 4: A strategic scenario","Sometimes there's a need for a strategy for one issue.","Sometimes  more groups can work temporarily together to achieve related goals, in more complex influencing processes.","We call this a multiple-issue strategy or a strategic scenario.","A strategic scenario is a planned approach of complex (macro) goals.","It implies a cooperation of several participants, networks and potential fellow combatants, taking into account future developments: a strategic alliance.","To some extent the strategic scenario differs from the 'normal' one-issue strategy.","The goal of a strategic scenario is defined in a more open-ended way and is not fully operationalized.","It is a global goal, it indicates a direction of change.","It can be broken down into several sub goals, which can be made concrete and measurable.","It is important in formulating such a goal to take account of trends, and to anticipate on future developments.","An effective goal tries to ride the wave of a certain development nationally or internationally.","The start of a strategic scenario lies with the potential supporters instead of in defining the decision makers.","A strategic scenario depends on a number of different people/organizations cooperating on a specific issue, towards a common goal, during a specific time - and being prepared to put away their differences in the meantime.","In the one-issue strategy the first thing is to formulate the goals, and the next step is finding fellow organisations who can help realise the goal.","In a strategic scenario the identification of potential support groups is the starting point.","After that, those supporters can, in dialogue, formulate the goals which suit them and which fit the more general strategic direction.","The presence of networks, alliances and potential co-workers is a good setting for achieving such a strategic scenario.","The next important question is the necessity for coordination.","The strength of a strategic scenario is the cumulative effect and timing of a lot of actors who try to achieve their own sub goals.","By good timing, a common direction, cooperation when and where necessary, and a good system of communication the strategic scenario is likely to work.","Success depends on:","sufficient fellow groups who can be motivated to do their part of the job (mobilize support and enthusiasm)","coordination, cooperation, timing","trends, mainstream currents which help or at least don't hinder too much.","A strategic scenario can be prepared by following the checklist: CHECKLIST STRATEGIC SCENARIO 1.","the problem","description of the problem - in main features","why is this a problem just now and for whom ?","what is happening at this moment to tackle/solve the problem","key factors for success and bottlenecks in the solutions uptill now 2.","the umbrella objective","global objective","is there any support for this objective ?","is the objective feasible ?","is the objective inspiring ? 3.","the analysis","What actual trends and developments in society support this goal?","What actual trends and developments in society work against this goal? 4.","the power relations","Which persons and parties are having interest in keeping the problem the way it is and who has/have interest in changing the situation/solving the problem ?","which persons have direct or indirect influence on the problem or are able to partially solve the problem ?","(think of political parties, civil servants, administrators, advisory council, trade unions, professional organisations action groups, media, research institutes etc.)","Global impression of the relations of power: who are the persons who decide, allies, intermediates ? What sorts of power do they have towards each other ? 5.","the allies","What parties and persons","are backing the global umbrella objective?","have enough self interest to formulate their own sub goal and under the umbrella objective ?","are approachable as allies in the strategic scenario ? 6.","the sub goals","Per ally/alliance/network of allies:","formulate a sub goal under the umbrella of the global objective.","(criteria: specific, measurable, feasible and inspiring)","what's the relation between the sub goal and the main-global goal ?","who is the decision maker for the sub goal and chooses via which strategy this sub goal might be reached","what effect might this chosen strategy have on the global objective ? 7.","the feasibility","Looking at the umbrella objective:","are there enough and the right allies ?","is there enough and the correct information, strategical expertise and skills among those allies ? 8.","the organisation of the strategic scenario","how is the communication organised between the allies (exchanging information, cooperation, successes and constraints)","who takes care for keeping the umbrella objective in mind ?","who takes care for external publicity ?","Read: Action 4: A strategic scenario","./en_read_action_4.htm","5,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[41]=new Array("Read: Action 1: Strategy: checklist","Your group wants something.","To reach this you make use of a strategy.","This checklist helps you to choose the right strategy and to prepare yourself.","Defining the action goal","What is the connection between the short term action-goal to your long term goals and ideology?","Is the short term goal: CONCRETE/MEASURABLE/FEASIBLE/INSPIRING? 2.","Who is the decision maker?","Who is/are the formal decision maker(s)?","Who is/are the (informal) decision maker(s)?","Who is (in this specific case) decisive?","(How can you detect that, are there neutral or reliable sources?) 3.","Which strategy?","Choice:","The convince-strategy - arguments and content play the central role","The exchange or win-win strategy - (mutual) interests form the starting point","The pressure strategy - gathering power is the main feature.","The decision maker can be convinced if:","There is a good working alliance.","(for instance open information)","He or she can listen to the arguments that are related to this goal","(this condition is valid for both sides)","Willingness (on both sides) to look for compromises Are these conditions available or can you make them available:","CHOOSE FOR THE CONVINCE STRATEGY","If not: don't continue offering arguments, because they will have no effect so CHOOSE for the win-win or the pressure strategy.","3a.","Preparation for the convince strategy:","Which are your own arguments ?","What do you exactly ask from the decision maker","On which level do you define that step: knowing, thinking, involvement or acting?","Draw a profile of the decision maker on the issue at stake:","information (what does he or she know about the subject?)  ","opinion (what does he or she think about the subject?)  ","emotional involvement (does the subject concern him or her, is he or she affected by the subject?)","action (is he or she already active in this matter?)","In view of this profile, what do you have to do to convince him or her? Success factors","The way of thinking of the decision maker is more or less parallel to your own ideas","The step you are asking is not too big","The decision maker has own interest(s) connected with this case.","Hints for the process of convincing the other party:","Keep the working alliance clean (open information, even about possible weak aspects of your own proposal)","Link the subject matter to the profile (level of thinking or involvement) of the decision maker","Really listen to the arguments and interests of the other party","Do not put pressure on.","One does not become convinced through pressure.","3b.","Preparation for the exchange or win-win strategy","In this strategy both parties reach their goals.","Both parties benefit.","The main question is: do we have something in stock or can we get something (material or immaterial) that is valuable for the other party.","So valuable that he or she will make a deal, will meet our wishes, and at the same time reach his or her own goals?  ","What are the goals, the needs, interests and underlying assumptions of both sides ?","Try to discover the common and different (conflicting and non-conflicting) interests","Can you offer something to reach any of the goals, needs, interests of the other party? And vice versa? Is there an attractive balance in this possible exchange?","OR: Can you think of a creative solution based on the common interests and the different (but not conflicting) interests? Success factors:","Success is dependent on the willingness and capacities to reach the goals of both parties Hints for a negotiation aimed at exchange or win-win","Keep the working alliance clean (open information, no trading tricks","Give (and ask) as much information as possible about your own (and their) underlying assumptions","Put energy in the most rich solutions: including as many as possible interests of both sides 3c.","Preparation for the pressure strategy","If 3a and 3B are not possible, organize pressure on the decision-maker:","For what kind of power and for which powerful people is the decision maker susceptible?","Who will listen to you?","Is there any overlap between those two lists ( of people)?","Are there connections between those people who will listen to you and those for whom the decision maker is susceptible?","Can you use publicity, what kind of publicity is able to hit the decision maker, what kind of journalists listen to you?","What legislation or other means supportive to your goal are available ? Success factors:","Enough connections or access to people and means to put pressure on the decision maker.","Possible arrangement of a more or less simultaneous pressure","Enough power is gathered, in view of the other party","N.B.","In this strategy there isn't always a live confrontation between the two parties.","The result of a successful pressure strategy can be:","reaching your goal","a meeting in which both parties threaten with using their gathered power (negotiation based on power, see below)","a meeting in which both parties agree to find a solution in mutual benefit (exchange or win-win negotiation) Hints for a negotiation based on power:","prepare your first demand and your cut-off point","prepare concessions","negotiate, showing your power","work as a team, make a task division","secure your success, step by step","stop the negotiation if necessary in time.","Read: Action Strategy: checklist","./en_read_action_1.htm","6,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[42]=new Array("Read change 1: Strategizing change and implementation of changes","The process of consulting is approaching its finish.","Ideas are being transformed to operational plans.","Most of the time the process of change is described as if we are dealing with a fixed procedure and as if consultants are following the path of the theory: intake, dynamic analysis, recommendations, implementation.","But life itself is more complex and chaotic.","Implementation of changes in an organisation can be compared with action research in investigation.","The moment the consultant makes his or her appearance in the organisation, its reality starts to be influenced.","The mere announcement of change causes already changes.","The art of consulting is to push those changes in the desired direction.","Consulting is not dealing with a scientific determination of the effect of recommendations.","The heart of the matter is bringing about feasible and effective changes.","So defined, implementation covers far more than carrying out recommendations in the last phase of a consultancy process.","Other topics are also part of the process, like sensitizing the organisation for the problem at hand, strengthening the support for the recommendations and making the organisation susceptible for change.","Implementation is an ongoing process, right from the start.","The core question of implementation is: how to use the energy, available in the organisation, in behalf of the realisation of the intended change.","E=KxA, effectivity and acceptation.","The famous formula:  E=KxA is applicable: the effectiveness of the recommendation equals the quality of that recommendation multiplied by its acceptation.","The consultant/change agent considers the development of the acceptance as part of the job.","Consultant who are blaming the organisation not being fit for their recommendations, those consultants will find the cynics on their hands, but will not manage to put the organisation in motion.","It can happen that an organisation turns out not being able to realize the consultants recommendations.","Thinking in terms of action research: in such a case something in the recommendations  will be deficient too.","Probably the consultant has taken the role of the expert who has not taken into account the  possibilities or capacities of the organisation.","Working on acceptation is the part of the process of implementation that always need attention.","Because if the right breeding ground is available, the organisation probably had thought itself of a solution.","The presence of a consultant indicates the need for help of an organisation in adjusting itself to a changing reality.","Some recommendations can be introduced top down, neglecting the level of acceptance.","But such recommendations are rare.","When the turning point of the change has to do with (the knowledge, attitude or skills of) people, an active support will be needed for a successful implementation.","Support and energy","To change an organisation, passive support is not sufficient.","What we need is active and dynamic support.","Like said before: when the turning point of the change has to do with (the knowledge, attitude or skills of) people, it is not enough that people acquiesce in a new policy, structure or culture.","People have to consider the change necessary, and they have to feel the need to support it.","Only then the change has a chance to be integrated in the realm of action.","Such a support requires energy.","The energy-scan","Studying the ways an organisation tries to tackle problems (or how it was done in the past) can reveal the employment of energy of an organisation.","Sometimes the organisation stresses the possibilities and chances and everyone is mobilised to think about solutions.","Such an organisation has forward directed energy.  Other organisations are primarily preoccupied with the threats and run the risk to get stuck in that phase.","The energy is frozen.","Some organisations put their energy in looking for the guilty ones or a scapegoat and keep themselves busy with the question: how could it happen? The energy has a backwards direction.","Some organisations only want to be put in the right (I warned several times....)","The ways to cope with problems are not accidental nor incidental.","The way an organisation directs its energy is comparable with the current of a river.","It is not a choice, it is the resultant of the past.","The direction of the stream creates the bed of the river which makes the same direction for the next time more probable.","A consultant cannot just order another flow.","The art of consulting is to use the common direction of the energy on behalf of the solution of the problem.","Not only by placing the problem in the middle of the stream, but by joining the motion of the stream and using its force.","The change itself generates the motion.","Sometimes the intended change itself generates the energy for its realisation.","The ideas ignite the enthusiasm of people and all that should be done is to use and direct the ebullition of energy.","In some organisation such positive use of energy lies ready to be used.","The work of the consultant is to think about ways to employ the energy.","Sometimes an extra ignition is needed for a take-off speed to break away.","Take-off ignition can be found for example in an opening conference or start-meeting that stimulates the existing energy and offers an approach to the problem, directed to solutions.","Sometimes it is necessary to temporarily evade structural obstacles in order to provide the process of a successful start.","For that reason some organisations make use of a temporary infra-structure (a task force with a specific assignment and own channels of communications) by which blockages in the line -or in the communication- no longer are obstacles for the process of change.","How to join the motion.","The intended change not always finds a favourable breeding ground.","Maybe the organisation has some energy, but that is being used for other purposes.","The consultant could try to apply judo techniques: take advantage of the forces on behalf of the change.","The most important activity for implementation in such a case is joining the motion.","The consultant should investigate by what kind of topics people tend to be mobilised.","The next step is to join the change-topic to the existing stream of energy: i.e.","to the mobilising-topic.","This activity can be compared with the smart habits of the small white heron that pokes about in the presence of a cow, making profit of its abundance of food.","Use the richness of energy of something else for your own purpose.","A smart energy-seeker always finds streams of energy that can be used.","A disadvantage of this strategy is its inevitable invisibility.","If we should make the strategy visible, the change topic becomes visible.","But that change topic is not able to generate enough energy under its own steam, otherwise it should be placed in the category above (the change generates the motion).","Joining the motion as a strategy can be used on content and process.","For instance: the heron of the gender-approach can make use of for instance the energy of the cow: personnel policy or the quality policy (using another content).","Or: the heron gender-approach makes use of the energy of the cow: lunch meetings (using another process).","Using the culture.","The consultant who is invited as a change agent often feels the existing culture as a major obstacle.","An example: the organisational culture is procedure driven, while the core of the intended change is to turn the organisation towards an external orientation.","Being driven by procedures is a sign of an internal orientation, so at first sight the assignment of the consultant seems to be to fight the existing culture.","But organisational culture is never trivial and organisational culture is never composed of only useless elements.","It is the task of the consultant to recognise those elements in the existing culture that can be used as materials for improvement.","For instance: we begin to look closer to what we called procedure driven.","It turns out to be a summary of a variety of actions (habits): people are used to describe in detail whàt should be done before doing it, hòw it should be done, whò is doing what, in which order and whò will be responsible.","What could the consultant use this culture on behalf of the development of an external orientation??","For instance by organising a series of individual agreements (!) with members of the organisation in order to map out in detail (!) in which networks they participate.","Those individual networks will be joined to one external map (!) of the organisation.","In a general meeting it will be determined (!) which connections are missing and which should be used better.","This common analysis (!) is followed by the precise distribution of tasks (!) and the planning (!) of agreements.","To round it off the evaluation (!) is planned.","The consultant uses the existing stream of the culture and makes his or her own preference (for instance to celebrate the start of becoming external orientation with a tremendous party) of minor importance.","Ostentatious challenging the existing culture sometimes brings about admiration, but seldom success.","The impossible culture.","Using the culture (as the heron uses the cow)  is not always possible.","There are some organisational cultures which make a favourable turn impossible","An example is the organisational culture which is called: popular cynicism.","In an organisation suffering from cynicism the people have given up the hope of improvement.","In fact they are in a state of collective depression, which is not expressed in the blues.","On the contrary, people seem to rejoice that things are rotten.","There is a collective ambition to amuse each other with bitter jokes at the expense of the organisation.","An organisation in deep sombreness is a difficult but not impossible challenge for a consultant.","Helping an organisation that amuses itself with its misery is well-nigh impossible.","The reason for that is because the cynics have committed themselves to a certain attitude and each opening to improvement would strike at the roots of their certainties.","People have to reject ideas for improvement because the risk of loosing one's footing is too big.","There are more examples of impossible cultures, but the consultant is not always empty-handed.","It is important to explore quietly the spreading of the popular cynicism over the organisation.","Is it really uniformly spread, or are there differences in the organisation? The outcome of such an exploration often is that it is only a minority that defines the expressions and the manners and that the majority would like to be hopeful, if they only dared.","The consultant should work with those people in small groups, avoiding for the time being plenary sessions in which the cynics set the tone.","How to make use of people: supporters, opponents and bystanders.","In a lot of change processes the consultant will detect three types of people in the organisation: supporters, opponents and bystanders.","It is necessary to begin with the process of change with supporters.","Even if the organisation proposes to compose a task force "in which also some critical people who are not in favour of changes" (in a sincere attempt to provide the consultant of a representative group) the consultant should choose for a group that feels like help thinking.","After a while the Help Thinking-group  should deal with the question: how to reach the probably biggest group in the organisation, the bystanders, those people who sit on the fence.","What could we do to make them enthusiastic?","By displacement of the enthusiasm to the middle group one could try to reach the opponents.","In a successful process the opponents have sometimes simply disappeared.","Sometimes they wait in the wings in case the project yet happens to fail.","Sometimes they develop themselves into people with a positive critical function.","It is important for the consultant to realise that the question of failure or success is not decided by the supporters or the opponents, but that the critical mass is decisive.","In a succeeding project the number of people who are joining in swells and at a certain moment it will pass a limit that makes the change inevitable.","Consultants should bear this in mind and should try to recognise this phenomenon, because opponents can have a massive negative effect on their energy and attention.","One gruff man who is shaking his head in an audience that is generally enthusiastic, one such a person is able to absorb the energy of the speaker.","We call this phenomenon the power of distraction.","The consultant in the role as speaker should be aware of this phenomenon.","A firm intention to direct the own energy towards the supporters and bystanders may help prevent this unbelievably annoying experience.","The use of necessity.","Generally spoken: the forces in an organisation always tend to continue the once taken direction.","Even if the consultant is recruited on behalf of a desired change, even then the energy of an organisation will be directed primarily on continuation of what people were doing.","Probably we are dealing here with a pattern of a social psychological nature.","Though some experts' starting point is people liking change (as for instance Moss Kanter), the most common point of view is that an organisation is likely to show resistance to change.","The practise of change shows that the most successful changes are realised if a clear necessity for change is apparent.","The more tight the link of the necessity is to the survival of the organisation, the more complete and quick will be the change of the organisation.","If the board of an health institution wants to integrate a gender approach in its treatment this will be easier accomplished when the institution has a fast growing number of female patients.","A new policy alone causes no organisational necessity.","The change in the group of clients does.","That is why consultants speak of a workable necessity.","Read: Change 1: Strategizing change and implementation of changes","./en_read_change_1.htm","14,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[43]=new Array("Read change 2: Change and the sense of urgency","Realising changes in organisations requires investment in terms of time and money, but most important in terms of people's attention, reflection and energy to do things differently.","Not everybody will accept the intended changes with the same level of willing.","People are busy, are more or less content with the way things go or have other priorities.","In other words: change is not happening only because someone says it should happen.","People change (their habits or working methods) because they believe in the necessity.","Because they feel the sense of urgency.","That sense of urgency is not equally clear for everyone in the organisation.","The crucial activity in change is to induce people to do things differently.","In most cases this means also a change in organisational culture: in values and norms and in habits and working methods they once developed and agreed to.","Culture is a powerful force in the organisation.","If the intended change follows naturally the way people are used to do their job, then the characteristics of the organisational culture can be used completely.","But if the intended change requires new cultural aspects, then the change will be more difficult to realise.","Not because the workers are on beforehand unwilling, but because a change of the organisational culture will fail if it is only based on a declaration of intent.","If compelling reasons to change are lacking, then a relapse in old habits is most likely.","Organisational culture can be considered as the personality of the organisation.","Like in the case of someone's personality, one can change some aspects of behaviour, but structural changes are far more difficult to obtain and require deep investments.","Far reaching changes are only feasible if people feel the urgency to change.","(Comparable with psychotherapy: clients can only bear the burden of a therapy if they consider the burden of their suffering heavier.) An example of a change like that is the change over to market oriented working methods, a process of conversion for a lot of institutions in the non-profit sector in Western countries.","Being market oriented requires another attitude.","Concepts like price quality ratio, measuring output or getting the targets are abominations to those workers in the non-profit sector who work with their clients (or on a topic)  from a feeling of solidarity.","Such workers can only be motivated to change their working methods if they have a sense of urgency, for instance because the survival of the organisation is at stake.","External necessity.","Far reaching changes need a clear external necessity.","The management (or the change agent) has to make visible and perceptible that change is needed in order to survive.","Sometimes such an external necessity is clearly present.","For instance because the subsidy is reallocated or finished, because the clientele is changing or because of an increase in complaints.","The making of necessity.","The existence of a necessity to change may be clear for the change agent, but sometimes it has to be made visible and perceptible for other people as well.","Sometimes it is needed to look for changes in the outside world that can act as motivators for changes inside the organisation.","One way of doing it is benchmarking.","Benchmarking is a method of investigation in which products or services are compared with those of another (peer or competitive) organisation.","Benchmarking can reveal the (lack of) quality of the own organisation, in comparison to similar organisations.","Such results can mean a threat for the future, certainly if competition will play an important role in the future.","So benchmarking can help prove that performance should improve (in order to keep joining) and that it can improve (others can do it, so why don't we?)","Sometimes the external necessity is caused by changes in the outside world, may it be a threat or an opportunity.","Some institutions are able to change by seizing opportunities.","An organisation for instance seizes the opportunities to change its profile thereby promoting the stream of a new segment of the market.","Or an organisation develops in a relatively simple way a new supply and puts it on the market that seems ready for it (a training preventing work-stress for example).","Other organisations are more likely to be motivated by rising threats: aggressive competition, decreasing profits, threatening reduction.","External threats, like increasing competition or decreasing subsidy are not always experienced as the most powerful motivating stimuli.","The first reaction to such threats is rather anger, defence or paralysis.","The skill of the change agent is to bend such (understandable) reactions to external threats towards a certain level of enthusiasm.","For instance by showing that such a threat can offer new perspectives.","For example: a situation of intensified competition offers the opportunity to concentrate more than before on the own core competence.","Finally: the urge for change can be underlined by pointing to relevant trends and developments.","We mention some examples of trends that can stress the external necessity for the introduction of gender specific health care:","individualisation: clients increasingly expect care that corresponds to their specific interests and needs.","emancipation nowadays belongs to the mainstream: the last few years, problems of women and the way to understand those problems are convincingly related by the women movement to gender socialisation.","As a result a lot of women came to see their own complaints and problems in a different light.","(A Dutch example: before 1980 hardly any woman was seeking help because of sexual abuse.","The percentage of women seeking help for that reason increased significantly after 1980, when the women movement brought to light that sexual abuse was a common problem.) Women are liberated and they expect from health care institutions that they have emancipated in a same degree.","women in societal functions and positions: slowly but surely women get higher positions.","This  brings new problems, for instance problems of burning out, double burden because of the combination of work and domestic care.","Not only men but also women of forty year old land in a midlife crisis.","This social upgrading causes gender specific complaints.","increased freedom of choice: people seem to have more and more choices.","The path of life is no longer outlined at  the moment of birth.","The idea of freedom of choice (apart from the question if such freedom really exists) may intensify feelings of guilt.",""It is my own fault, I went with him completely voluntarily.") Most people have indeed more choices, but the wealth of choices held out to them isn't within easy reach.","The fact that one cannot realise one's wishes is more and more felt as a personal failure, while the real cause may lie in societal exclusion.","Read: Change 2: Change and the sense of urgency","./en_read_change_2.htm","7,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[44]=new Array("Read change 3: Resistance to change","Resistance has many faces: open resistance, passive resistance, resistance in disguise.","Resistance will bother the change agent, especially as the type of change (change of values or norms which need to be rooted in the behaviour of people) requires participation, active cooperation or even enthusiasm.","Resistance may show up in all phases of the change process.","Resistance can be present at the start, when the necessity to change is investigated, if people do not enough accept or experience the necessity.","Resistance will be painfully perceptible in the phase of implementation, when the objectives of change have to be translated to actual actions.","And again: the more active participation plays a role, the more it will be difficult to deal with resistance.","Changes, in which training and coaching of workers are crucial elements, can be fairly well obstructed by resistance.  In other words: resistance can lead to a lack of support of those people who are at stake.","Expressions of such a lack of support go from passively waiting and negating the changes, via delay and misunderstandings, via impalpable sabotage to finally open opposition.","An obvious way to break resistance is to launch the intended changes more forcefully.","But such a counter pressure leads often to intensified resistance.","Something different has to be done.","The change agent has to begin to understand, decode and re-code the resistance.","A positive scheme of thinking about people implies that people want to change.","If people in an organisation do not join the changes, then their natural willingness is blocked by something.","Such a blockage can be a consequence of a lack of a feeling of urgence, a lack of wanting the change or a lack of capacity to change.","The feeling of urgence.","Someone will be willing to change if he or she really experiences the urge to change and if the people in the workplace have a positive attitude towards the change.","Thus if the boss and the colleagues agree with the change or when they show some enthusiasm because of the change.","The sense of urgency can be influenced by information on the actual performance of the organisation and the (future) demands.","The will to change.","Someone will be willing to change if (s)he is convinced of the positive results of the change and believes in the positive effects on the work and on the organisation.","The will to change can be influenced by motivating.","The capacity to change.","Someone will be willing to change if (s)he is running the process of change her/him-self, as much as possible.","Thus if someone can agree with the way the process is directed, if money and time are supplied, if the involvement is as big as possible and if the complexity of the change can be overlooked.","Good experiences with previous changes can be helpful.","The capacity to change can be influenced by a high degree of participation.","The change agent will be able, with he help of this decoding key, to investigate the willingness to change and to predict the presence of resistance.","Questions: ","which consequences for the work do the workers expect of the intended change?","what kind of emotions are evoked by the intended change?","are the workers convinced of the positive effects of the change?","are they involved in the process of change?","what is the attitude of others (management,  colleagues) towards the change?","what is the experience of the workers with previous changes?","have the workers enough time and other means to their disposal, in order to realise the change successfully?","is the process of change well-directed guided?","do the workers consider the change complex?","is the process of change at the right moment?","Wanting to (motivation), having to (urge) and being able to (capacity) are three necessary ingredients for a successful implementation.","A combination of presence and absence of those three ingredients can lead to specific problems:","motivation OK, but no capacity: frustration.","Solution: training.","motivation OK, but no urge: delay.","Solution: anticipatory experiments.","urge OK, but no motivation: reactive attitude of personnel.","Solution: motivation.","urge OK, but no capacity: paralysis.","Solution: capacity building","capacity OK, but no motivation: nothing happens.","Solution: create take-off energy","capacity OK, but no urge: everything waits till the market forces a change.","Solution: look for other urge.","The urge (to have to change) is the crucial element at the start and the decision making of the change process.","Action: mobilise.","The motivation (wanting to change) is important in the phase of acceptation.","Action: negotiate, coach and convince.","The capacity (being able to change) is crucial in the phase of implementation.","Action: support, plan and simplify.","Resuming:","do ask yourself if the resistance can be understood as deficits in the willingness to change","check in which phase the process of change is","think if actions are possible that will cover fully the (decoded) diagnosis of the resistance.","Read: Change 3: Resistance to change","./en_read_change_3.htm","5,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[45]=new Array("Read Change 4: Strategic positioning and strategic management","Strategic positioning is the positioning of an organization (unit) in the future, while taking into account the changing environment, plus the systematic realization of that positioning.","The strategic positioning of an organization includes the devising of the desired future position of the organization on the basis of present and foreseeable developments, and the making of plans to realize that positioning.","The strategic positioning method is derived from the business world.","The method is aimed at ensuring the continuity of the organization.","The strategy determines the contents and the character of the organization's activities.","Terms, such as survival, legitimacy, market positioning, relationship with environment and choice for a certain work area, come up in this context.","Subjects which have been developed reasonably well in literature on strategic management include: information collection techniques, analysis techniques and planning schemes.","Not or hardly developed are methods for exploring the future.","Various questions must be asked with strategic positioning:","How does the future look like?","How could the organization be roughly positioned in the future?","How are things in the organization at present?","How can opportunities be seized and how can threats be met?","How can this be put into practice in a systematic way?","We will deal with the following aspects:","the future;","information collection;","analysis;","choice of strategy;","implementation.","The future","Each futurology is based on the past and present.","Whether the future is predicted from the flight of a flock of ducks, or from the way in which coffee grounds spread under a turned cup, or from thoughts of wise men: the waves of the future are always interpreted on the basis of the wavelets which are already visible in the present.","Trend research according to Naisbitt (shifts in the basically closed news circuit) is based on small shifts which announce future developments.","If we can get hold of today's trends, we may perhaps extrapolate them into the future.","It is important for everybody to map the non-volatile developments which are relevant to the own organization.","A first exploration of the strategic positioning can be constituted by extrapolating the trends and by gearing them to the field in which the own organization operates.","Information collection","The steps to be taken are internal research and external research.","Internal research","Where does our organization stand? What internal factors are decisive for survival and for failure or success, both in a positive and in a negative sense? It is advisable to draw up a list of own relevant criteria, which are applicable to the branch you are working in.","This will help determine the strong and weak points of the own organization.","External research","What influences from outside can be of decisive importance to the realization of the organization's objectives? Or: what external critical factors are there?","Model lists of such factors are available but the organization should come up with its own relevant criteria, which do not only belong to the sector but also, for instance, to region-specific developments.","This will help describe the opportunities and threats of the organization.","Future opportunities and threats are also mapped occasionally by making use of extrapolation (trend curves or mathematical models) or by consulting experts in a systemized way.","Or by making one or more empirically founded, plausible constructions of the anticipated developments (scenarios).","Analysis","One can make an analysis of the strategic position by confronting the data of the internal and external researches with each other.","An often used method is the SWOT analysis.","Four lists of factors are drawn up: Strong Weak Opportunity and Threat.","This is usually done in a group meeting of members of the organisation.","Another method is the Product/Market Matrix.","Questions raised with this method are: Can you, departing from the existing product range, think of new applications (markets)? And can you supply markets where you are already on firm ground with a variation on your product? (Example: New Zealand sheep farms inventing a new application of wool at times of stiff competition on the wool market: absorption of oil spills at sea, being an existing product on a new market.)","A third method is the Portfolio analysis, which is derived from stock exchange operators wondering: "Which securities must we keep and which must we sell?".","A specific portfolio is that of the Boston Consultants Group, which holds the investment or the growth of the branch of industry (Y-axis) against the profit or the market share (X-axis).","Four fields then come into being: the stars, the milk cows, the wild cats and the dogs.","Note: for NGO's, the term profit has to be translated in the immaterial yield that should be derived: some distress that is eased; some social interest that is served.","The instruments of strategic positioning are derived from business but are fit to serve NGO's as well.","Choice of strategy","On the basis of the analysis of internal and external critical factors - so, on basis of the estimated chances of seizing opportunities and meeting threats - the positioning will be determined.","It would be quite nice to make a very specific positioning choice: we aim at becoming an organization which .....","(a description follows, by what the position choice is characterized, in terms of products, customers and image).","Once such a choice has been made, it should be studied what strategy is appropriate to realize that choice of position.","In literature rough strategies are indicated, such as stabilization, growth, shrinking and turnaround.","The organization can probably indicate much more specifically and accurately what strategy must be opted for.","Growth in a certain direction, orientation towards a certain market, etc.","Implementation","The main thing of implementation is that, departing from the future positioning choice, theory is translated into what is to be done in order to realize that positioning.","Example of elements of a strategic plan","Business plan, for instance aimed at:","internal growth: strengthening of the own position on the existing market;","market penetration: introduction of products on new market;","market development: new product on existing market;","product development or diversification: new product on new market.","Product plan, selection of products or services, determination of their quality, effect of a product (result for customer).","Marketing plan, aimed at marketing mix: product policy, promotion policy, distribution policy and price policy (cost price/ market price/ competition price?).","Production plan, choice of location, choice of equipment and of the production process, production standards, layout.","Production planning, production management, stock control, quality control, cost control, maintenance.","Research plan, technological innovation or product modification.","Personnel & Organization plan, positions, recruitment and selection, career development, organizational structure, training and education, organization culture, performance assessment, terms of employment, relationship with the representative advisory committee, organized consultations, trade unions, promotion policy.","Purchase plan, evaluation of suppliers, account management, make-or-buy.","Logistical plan, transport management, stock and handling, run-through times, term of delivery.","Financial plan, registration and evaluation of financial data, responsibility for availability of financing.","Information plan, gathering and processing of data.","Quality plan, consistency, competence, responsibility, accessibility, respect, communication, credibility, understanding, safety, appearance.","Public Relations plan, both internal (mission, propagation of business objectives, motivation of staff) and external.","Read: Change 4: Strategic positioning and strategic management","./en_read_change_4.htm","8,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[46]=new Array("Read Change 5: Trends","The American author John Naisbitt has developed a method for gaining an impression of future developments.","This is based on a content analysis of a large amount of print media.","The news segment of the newspaper is a closed system.","For economic reasons the relative amount of space for news (relationship between advertising and news) changes little in the course of time.","If a topic is added, something else has to be left out.","By keeping careful track of the new and the omitted topics, we can in a certain sense get a picture of the changing market share of competing social aspects.","Naisbitt's content analysis makes use of a monthly evaluation of 6,000 local newspapers.","The shifts he reveals in this manner, he refers to as trends or megatrends.","Trends appear gradually, fads are faster and less long-lasting, they have more to do with fashion.","Trends are massive shifts in what is regarded as important by public opinion, regardless of their "objective" importance.","In his book Naisbitt gives impressive examples of the operation of trends.","He points out, for instance, that interest in drugs in the news has dropped dramatically in the past ten years, although the problem itself has become progressively greater.","In other words, there is no relationship between the attention the topic receives and its objective or "real" importance.","Another example from Naisbitt: in the sixties the "space" for discrimination was filled with worries about racism; in 1969 sexism began to appear in the columns.","By 1975 half the space was devoted to racism and half to sexism.","From 1977 onwards these topics lost out to increasing concern about discrimination against older people.","In the end, two-thirds of the space for discrimination was filled with reports about the problems of "ageism" and the remaining third was shared by racism and sexism.","However, as soon as the US Congress raised the age of compulsory retirement in industry from 65 to 70 and abolished the limit for the public sector, stories about age discrimination began to decrease.","Naisbitt wrote Megatrends in 1982 and Megatrends 2000 in 1990.","His first book was concerned with the following trends, which, in his view, "shaped the eighties":","From an industrial society to an information society","From imposed technology to technology processing","From a national economy to a world economy","From short term to long term","From centralisation to decentralisation of power","From welfare to self-help","From representational democracy to direct democracy","From hierarchies to networks","From north to south","From limited choice to multiple choice","Megatrends 2000 is about the last ten years prior to the 21st century.","In that decade, the "most important trends that affect our lives" are, according to Naisbitt:","The explosive development of the world economy","A renaissance in art","The rise of free market socialism","Global lifestyles and cultural nationalism","The privatisation of the welfare state","The rise of the Pacific Rim countries","The decade of women at the top","The age of biology","The religious revival in the third millennium","The triumph of the individual","The most all-encompassing trend playing a role in social developments in a large part of the world is Naisbitt's number ten, individualisation.","Many "sub-trends" derive from this: quality, success, emancipation of the citizen, etc.","It can be useful for an organisation to research which trends are important to its own field of operation.","What are the non-trivial developments which can be derived from trends.","And to what extent does a development bring opportunity or danger.","Read: Change 5: Trends","./en_read_change_5.htm","4,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[47]=new Array("Read: civil society 1: A list of possible NGO contributions, deduced from practise and literature.","operational work  (service delivery) for specific consumer or clients groups, often performed by CBO's (community based organisations), that should be regularly performed or taken over by GO's (education, health care, tackling poverty, environmental care etc.).","Characteristics: the goal of the work, service delivery, is not politically controversial.","This type of work gradually becomes merged with the next type:","operational work (service delivery) for specific consumer or clients groups, rather new work in terms of target groups or service that on the long term should be added to the area of regular GO tasks (secret shelter for battered women, work for refugees, income generating projects).","Characteristics: the work is not yet and not everywhere considered to be part of the mainstream, is sometimes politically controversial","organised self-help groups, exchange of experiences and mutual assistance of people with comparable problems (women groups, patient groups).","Characteristics: the help is directed inward, aiming at relief of the members.","work of pressure groups, aiming to improve the interests of their grassroots (trade unions, patient organisations)","Characteristics: the goal is often a combination of issues directly related to self interest and issues that cover a more general political domain like participation.","advocacy work, aiming to change the policy of the government on certain issues (organisations within the anti war movement or peace movement, human rights movement, anti child labour groups, political feminist groups etc.)","Characteristics: the political character of the issue, the action aspects of the work, the connection with people's movement and the opponent role of the NGO.","This type of work does not essentially differ from the next type:","advocacy work, aiming to change industries or firms on certain issues (environmental groups, fair trading groups, caring company groups)","Characteristics: the political character of the issue, the action aspects of the work, the connection with social movements and the opponent role of the NGO.","mobilising work aiming to change the knowledge or attitudes of the citizens (awareness raising work related to attitudes towards ethnic differences, towards gay people, towards a non-democratic government or towards environmental issues)","Characteristics: the political character of the issue, the action aspects of the work and the opponent role of the NGO.","political work, directly aimed to change the political system towards more democracy, to mobilise people and to develop  the civil society (political organisations outside the political parties)","Characteristics:  the political character of the issue, the action aspects of the work and the opponent role of the NGO.","Read: civil society 1: A list of possible NGO contributions, deduced from practise and literature","./en_read_civil_society_1.htm","3,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[48]=new Array("Read: civil society 2: Definitions of civil society The following definitions are used in literature.","Civil society is the third party, next to state and market.","Civil society is the freedom of union without any state intervention, leaving space to expand new types of not for profit NGO's.","Civil society is the space between government, market and citizens, free to use by all three parties.","Civil society is democracy made operationally.","Civil society is one element in the three-part framework comprising the state, the economy and civil society.","Civil society is the primary locus for creating ideology, for building consensus and for legitimising power, that is, for creating and maintaining the cultural and social hegemony of the dominant group by consent rather than coercion.","Civil society is the arena where conflicting interests (that is, class interests) are contested and, short of direct domination and coercion, the state and the market must gain the consent of civil society for their legitimacy.","In the end, whoever captures civil society captures all.","Civil society consist of the actions of citizens (all human beings), individually and together, to improve their community and society.","Such actions are the basis on which democracy, pluralism, respect for human rights, good governance and the cohesiveness of society rests.","(Social movement: a conscious, collective, organised endeavour to achieve or to counteract large-scale change in the social order by not-institutionalised means.","The movement can be reformatory (trying to improve the existing system), alternative (doing things your own way) or transforming (trying to change social structures).","Who wants to know more about social movement, read: Wilson: Introduction to social movements, NY Basic Books, 1973).","Read: civil society 2: Definitions of civil society","./en_read_civil_society_2.htm","2,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[49]=new Array("Read: civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society","A broadly used definition of civil society is: the space between state, market and citizens.","It is an area where each party can join efforts in freedom of speech and expression and  where freedom exists for corporate life.","This definition links civil society to democracy.","Who wants to develop democracy has to develop the civil society.","NGO's are pre-eminently the organisations which arise from civil society and which in turn are co-designers of it.","The role of a NGO in the development of the civil society.","SERVICE DELIVERY, FILLING IN A VACUUM","Some NGO's restrict themselves to service delivery for specific groups for whom otherwise no service is available.","With their work they are just one of the inhabitants of the civil society.","QUESTIONING THE STRUCTURAL REASONS FOR A VACUUM IN THE SOCIETY","Some service delivering NGO's reckon it to their responsibility to explore the reasons for the necessity of their work..","This secondary task involves raising political awareness and societal or political analysis.","Often this gives an extra legitimacy to the existence of the organisation.","Such organisations make a start in contributing to the further development of civil society.","BEING PART OF THE SYSTEM  OF CHECKS AND BALANCES","Some NGO's consider the further development of the civil society as their co-responsibility, sometimes even as their primary goal.","Such NGO's make their government (and or the market parties) accountable on their efforts to meet international agreements on major issues (environmental, human rights, women issues etc.).","The NGO's, by doing this, function as a booster for Good Governance, Caring Companies and for the implementation of democracy.","Read: civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society","./en_read_civil_society_3.htm","2,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[50]=new Array("Read: civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","NGO's with a developmental aim are often called NGDO's (Non Governmental Development Organisations).","They perform the following macro and micro tasks.","Macro tasks:","policy advocacy","lobbying","public education","public mobilisation","monitoring compliance","reconciliation and mediation","Micro tasks:","material services","social services","financial services","capacity building","process facilitation","fostering linkages","reconciliation, mediation","Macro tasks are aimed at reform of the international order, reform of the public service and public policies and restructuring political economy.","Together they enable institutional reforms for good governance.","Micro tasks are aimed at: empowerment of communities and individuals, strengthening of local institutions, sustained improvements in physical well-being.","Together they enable mobilising and strengthening of civil society.","(Parts of) organisation with macro tasks should support those with micro tasks.","(Parts of) organisations with micro tasks should inform those with macro tasks.","Macro and micro tasks together may lead to a socially just and sustainable economy with accountable inclusive systems of governance.","From: Fowler: Striking a balance.","Earthscan, London, 2000.","Read: civil society 4: NGO's and development action","./en_read_civil_society_4.htm","2","9 dec 2003");
Page[51]=new Array("Read: civil society 5: Reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society","A NGO has to ask itself: why are we doing what we do.","This may lead to articulation of the structural and societal causes that make its work necessary.","Active participation in the civil society prevents being used by other forces.","The impact of a single NGO is far too small if the choice is made only to fight the symptoms of a problem.","Involving civil society means involving a far greater power in the process of problem solution.","The freedom of space for civil society needs to be fought for.","NGO's should join in that fight.","NGO's can take co-responsibility for the control of internationally agreed issues, specially if agreements related to the core business of the NGO.","Holding your own government accountable.","Parliament should perform this task but often it often does not do so without any pressure from the civil society.","NGO's can enable their grassroots to use the existing law system thus turning ascribed rights into acquired rights.","Those who already have some power should be involved in helping to settle  things for others.","'How big is your world?'","....","Read: civil society 5: Reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society","./en_read_civil_society_5.htm","1,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[52]=new Array("Read: civil society 6: Framework for a code of conduct.","In which aspects should a NGO perform different from another organisation?","(Think of aspects like objectives, values, personnel policy, quality, effectivity and efficiency, ....","Which aspects should meet special requirements? )","What should be the relationship with third parties?","(Think of the relationship with grassroots, donors, other NGO's, government, market parties etc.","Which relationships should meet special requirements?)","Should a NGO contribute on a special way to the developments of civil society? How?","(Think of the transition to democracy, the development of checks and balances towards governmental power, using the space between government and market for the freedom of union and for the voice of the citizens.","To which of these theme's should a NGO contribute?)","In which way should a NGO consultant differ from a consultant of profit organisations?","(Think of knowledge, experiences, opinions, values, skills etc.","On which of these topics should a NGO consultant require certain extra demands?)","Which of the first three elements of a code of conduct for NGO's should  have consequences for the code of conduct of NGO consultants?","Read: civil society 6: Framework for a code of conduct","./en_read_civil_society_6.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[53]=new Array("Read: communication 1: Internal communication, points of departure and planning.","Points of departure Internal communication is the communication between the people who together make up the organization, or between departments of an organization, or between board and members.","In many countries, internal communication is nowadays considered to be one of the most important means of steering an organization.","We distinguish four types of internal communication:","Informative communication.","Purely aimed at conveying information as accurately as possible.","Directive communication.","From direct supervision to imposed guidelines.","Still to be found in organisations with a somewhat old fashioned power structure.","Interactive communication.","Often aimed at creating public support or at contributing more knowledge for a certain solution.","Indirect communication.","Here, the management of the organization aims at accelerating changes within the own organization through use of communication means.","For instance mobilising the organisation by introducing external threat.","We will mainly deal with items 1 and 3.","Internal communication is subject to the same general principles of good communication, practising the basics of communication and knowing the paths of actual communication: General principles of good communication:","multi-media approach (people need to become aware of things by more than one sense and from more than one source)","clear moments/forms of communication (meetings, minutes, newsletter, logbook, etc...)","existing and trusted channels of communication should be used","people have to know where/who the sources of information are","reaction to gossip is to take it seriously, check and correct it, and improve lines of communication.","Inventory of communication","Why more communication (what are the aims of improvement).","What are the 'main streams' of communication (should not be filled too much).","What are the ways in which specific communication takes place (who needs to know more about what, who is responsible)","What are the undercurrents of communication - how to deal with this.","Basics of good communication","Good listening: Summarize, to show that you listened, that you are interested, that you understood correctly.","Ask questions, to hear more, in more detail.","Explore what the other person is trying to say at the level of facts and emotions.","Give reflections (part-summaries of the most important point of feeling that is coming across).","This makes the other person feel truly understood.","Clear communication: Separate facts, opinions and feelings.","Indicate what you think and feel, and why you think and feel that without making it universal.","Try to be transparent about your interpretations, assumptions.","Avoid judgements and half-messages.","Ask the other person to be a good listener, not to react immediately, but to first hear your observations/thoughts/feelings.","And then listen fully to her.","(Principle of taking turns).","The effects of internal communication get stronger, if the sender has a good message to convey, segmenting and analysing the target group, and clearly knowing what to achieve.","Try to explore underlying issues, needs or assumptions.","Shift the 'level' of communication if you feel the topic of conversation is really about something else.","Learn to hear 'emotional subtitles'.","There are also some differences between communication in general and internal communication: 1.","the target group","External communication often allows you to ignore certain segments (there where opposition is strongest).","With internal communication, you must develop a separate strategy for each segment of the total target group.","You have much more information about your target group.","You know the formal communication channels, the corridors, the informal leaders, the information seeking behaviour and the places where information is to be found.","congruity of communication","Most organizations find themselves in a process of change, which nearly always is also characterized by a change in habits (culture change).","Internal communication is often both the object and the vehicle of such a change - both goal and means.","Within the framework of the change in culture, people are, for instance, engaged in making the communication more bilateral.","This asks for openness and the willingness to adapt the message.","This also means that the core of the message must usually contain 3 elements:","the actual core of the contents;","an invitation to participate;","a reference to the broader process (what was it again why we are doing this?).","the communicator","In the case of internal communication, the receiver knows the source communicator.","The receiver has more information about him or her.","Sometimes this information is correct, sometimes only prejudices are concerned.","In short, being the source, you must have insight into the noise that you are producing yourself.","As communicator, you, in turn, are another link in the chain, so you are also influenced by the noise made by your sources.","the framework","Just as the social framework plays an important part in people's susceptibility to a message with external communication, the "internal" framework plays an important part with internal communication.","The message is much more imbedded in a process of continuity and is seen as part of (important) processes which are going on.","("Is this proposal for a simpler procedure only made for practical reasons or is it the first step to the undermining of my position?") So, framing is also important here.","People become more and more experts in impression management: deducing relevant information on the base of small parts of planned and non planned communication: verbal, non verbal and environmental aspects of communication.","Congruence is the only effective answer to this phenomenon.","Always try to do and act congruently with basic ideas and ideology.","the desired effect","Here, too, the internal process of change plays an important role.","When the interactive element of the communication prevails, the process gets more the character of a negotiation.","Resistance against messages also plays an important role in the susceptibility.","An internal communication plan","At the moment, many organizations take a great deal of interest in laying down the internal communication in a communication plan, because:","modern society becomes an information society more and more.","Communication is the process of streamlining in a chaotic world of "info bits".","(communication is planned info)","the command line (giving orders through communication channels) is not effective any longer.","Participation/public support is required.","Internal (plus external) communication is a tool for that purpose.","(communication is bilateral info)","sending is gradually being substituted by searching.","Individualisation combined with the overload of communication causes an active information strategy of people characterised by 'look and find' instead of the old fashioned 'wait and hear'.","For the former sender this change implies knowing the places where people find the relevant information and taking care of the availability of the information on the right spot.","(communication is being found)","individualization leads to acting independently on the periphery of organizations - on the front of the organization.","In order to realize a unity of ideas nevertheless, communication (about ideology, objectives, policy, main lines, etc.) will be necessary.","(communication is steering in a flexible climate)","the organization culture is comprehensive and complex.","The need for influencing the culture of the organization has remained.","Communication is the appropriate tool for that purpose.","(communication is a culture factor)","Who must draw up the communication plan?","A communication plan has to be a custom-made plan and must be prepared by someone who knows the ins and outs of the organization.","The maker of a communication plan must look at what level there is unity of ideas.","The more unity of ideas, also at the management level of the organization, the more effective the plan can be.","A communication plan is not a plan for all eternity.","The world changes and so organization objectives change, too, partly in the knowledge that organizations must be flexible.","To make a communication plan, three steps must be taken: determining the goal of the intended communication, determining the nature of the communication (sending and being found), and determining the routes.","Next, it must be studied how the organization of the communication plan must be effected.","Three steps in making a communication plan:","Determining what it is that you want to achieve with the communication plan.","Why is it that the organization wants to have a communication plan now? What does the organization hope will be solved or improved thanks to the communication plan?","The nature of the communication.","How do the points of departure (goals of communication) affect the nature of the communication? Example: If participation has to be promoted, the nature of the communication must be bilateral and invite to respond.","Whom to communicate with? What routes can be used for that purpose? A communication plan should confine itself to those routes which are of crucial importance, considering the points of departure.","So, the question is: who must communicate with who, considering the points of departure? It is important that the existing communication routes be respected, knowing that it is not without reason that such routes exist.","Improve existing routes, rather than laying new ones.","(Even if the existing routes are informal ones.)","A communication plan deals with the contents of the communication (what message and for whom?) and with the nature of the communication.","Here's a warning for those who are going to draw up a communication plan.","Beware of the suction force of the means of communication.","All too often a communication plan is about the communication vehicles: the bulletin, the journal, the speeches and the E-mail.","Of course, one must think about those vehicles, but only as the tailpiece of the communication plan.","Read: communication","./en_read_communication_1.htm","11,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[54]=new Array("Read: communication 2: Participation and public support as effects of communication","Continuous discussions have been going on about the question whether communication has much or little effect on the public opinion and how such effect comes about.","The prevailing opinion at present is: if used skilfully, communication can exert influence towards a certain direction which is determined by other factors.","What is actually meant when talking about "effects of communication" also differs during different periods.","In former times behaviour took central position as aimed effect.","From about 1960 till 1980 people took an interest in the fact whether communication was capable of changing opinions, judgments, prejudices, etc.","From the nineties on the most desired yield of communication is called "public support".","In many countries, people who wish to realize something do not look immediately  for power, but for people who support their views.","The application of communication is nowadays expected to play a dominant role in the field of creating public support.","Public support means that one may count on support from large sections of the population.","An idea which has public support can often easier be realized.","Resistance against such an idea will be weakened by public opinion.","How can we reach this situation?","There are three strategies to create public support by using communication: information, involvement and participation.","Information is a tool in cases when people wish to gain support for an idea, after it has been adopted.","The idea cannot be changed any more.","By explaining what the idea is about, one may find support for a decision already taken.","At first sight, it may seem superfluous to create public support for something that has already been decided upon, but it may be useful indeed.","It may be necessary to prepare people for the consequences of the implementation.","It is no secret that things go often wrong with providing information.","A common mistake  is not to make sufficiently clear that only information is given.","As a result people may think that their opinion still counts and noticing that this not being the case, they get angry.","The mishap may be caused by an innocent reason like for reasons of politeness not telling that accomplished facts are involved.","But often there is a more complex reason like a decision has not yet been taken formally but in reality it is not open to change anymore.","The latter situation is often seen with decisions born in political circles.","One of the basic principles of communication is that poor communication is more harmful to a relationship than no communication at all.","People who have nothing to say will be dissatisfied with that, but less dissatisfied than when they find out that they have nothing to say, after having been told otherwise.","Involvement means that it is possible for people to make changes to a proposed plan.","The public support by means of involvement is based upon the account been taken of peoples opinions and interests.","Successes in involvement are characterized by changes made to a plan.","Involvement does not result in the plan being felt as a common product.","It rather invites the public to make a contribution.","This may be satisfactory, but it leads to passive public support.","It is not so that creative strength is really mobilized - the plan never becomes our plan.","The distinctive feature of involvement is that the contribution of those who comment is not really necessary for realizing the plan.","If the public makes use of the opportunity to comment, those about to execute the plan are free to take into account the wishes and ideas put forward by the public.","But if no comments are made at all, this will not affect the plan.","In that case, the plan will be normally carried out in the form in which it had been submitted to the public for comment.","Participation may involve either a simple or a more ambitious form of participation.","In the case of the simple form, people are invited to take part in the execution of a plan which has come about without participation.","This may result in enthusiastic cooperation: a group of people roll up their sleeves.","In the case of the most ambitious form of participation, people are involved in the analysis, handling and solution of a problem right from the formulation of the problem.","The point of departure then is that a certain problem can only be solved through participation.","The message here is: If you have enough interest in the issue, take part! If that appeal is responded to positively, maximum public support will have been obtained for the approach.","Read: communication 2: Participation and public support as effects of communication","./en_read_communication_2.htm","5,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[55]=new Array("Read: communication 3: Research and public support","There is a strong growth of interest in public support.","Public support means the support within a large group of people for something that an organization wishes to achieve.","Public support makes it unnecessary to rely on power too much.","In many countries, it has become more and more difficult to realize objectives by means of using power only.","By using communication, public support can be created to a certain extent.","But then there must already be some breeding ground.","In fact, there must already be a certain extent of public support which could be increased.","Therefore, an important question is: How much public support do we already have?","There are some types of research which are suitable for measuring the public support on a subject.","These tools also give clues on how to increase public support.","Some tools have an action research character.","This means the increasing of public support is already worked on during the research itself.","Users panel.","Large organizations are sometimes characterized by a great distance between the management and those who are involved with the ultimate product of the organization.","The top managers of, for instance, a large organization which provides health education to women in poor quarters usually maintain no contacts any more with the target group and only speak with their own executive staff members.","It is conceivable that public support from the grassroots will diminish, without the management noticing this in time.","This difficulty is sometimes overcome by setting up panels: groups of customers, who meet one or more times to give their opinion about various aspects of the product and of the organization.","It is important that  workers be involved and get an active role, otherwise such a panel system may start to function as a means for the management to check on the volunteers.","If this should be the case, it will lead to conflicts.","Customer panels function best, if they have become a generally adopted policy within an organization and if the results are incorporated in an identifiable way.","into the organization's policy.","Customer panels should not meet more than three times.","After that the users will not be unbiased to a sufficient degree any longer - they stop being real customers.","Focus groups.","This method comes from the US and is often applied to commercial marketing and also to election campaigns.","One gathers a group of approximately ten persons, who form a reasonable representation of the target group one wishes to know more about.","Next, this group is faced with cases, which are intended to find out when the group changes over from being unmotivated to being motivated.","An example.","Your organisation wants to enlist more unemployed  men between the age of 25 to 40 as members.","You bring together a group of non-members of the right age and start a discussion in which you present advantages in a specific order of attractiveness.","Suppose no membership fee was involved; suppose the organization had a clubhouse; suppose your chances to get a job would increase; suppose more of these advantages were combined, etcetera.","The reaction of the group comes into being through interaction - the members of the group are stimulated to consult with each other.","In addition to the chairperson who brings up the cases, the meeting is also attended by an observer.","The yield of these focus groups is that, especially if the technique is repeated some times with different groups, proper insight will be gained into the exact conditions under which the target group changes over from unmotivated (no public support) to motivated (public support).","The outcome may also be that there will be public support under certain conditions, but that the organization will have to pay a disproportionately high price for that.","Example: It will be possible to successfully launch a membership recruitment campaign among unemployed men between 25 and 45 years old, if the membership is free, if they have free access to the clubhouse and if they get help in finding a job.","Arena conference.","This model is suitable for checking whether conflicting interests can be harmonized in such a way, that there will yet be public support for a certain idea.","One gathers a group of approximately 40 people, who have different interests in a certain idea.","The group may consist of members of different organizations who wish to realize something together.","They are asked to split up into four subgroups of mixed composition.","Each subgroup promotes a certain interest.","There is a facilitator and a negotiator.","The negotiator stands in the middle of the room and successively negotiates with the different subgroups, whereby the others may only watch.","The theme of each negotiation is: how should we adapt the basic idea in order to obtain the approval of your subgroup? If the negotiation is rounded off successfully, the negotiator goes to the next subgroup and asks the same question again.","In this way, the idea gradually changes.","The outcome may be that a final form is achieved, with which everybody is satisfied (public support) or it may turn out that no form can be found which takes away everybody's approval (no public support).","Consensus conference.","In Denmark the consensus conference is an official tool used by the parliament.","By means of consensus conferences it is examined whether public support can be won for technological changes to which moral aspects are attached.","In other countries, too, this tool is applied, often under the name of "technology assessment", but only in Denmark is it part of the parliamentary system.","The working of the consensus conference is as follows: an issue (for instance, the making of medicines through genetic engineering of large mammalians) is selected and people are asked via a public channel (in Denmark: advertisements in newspapers) whether some of them are interested in engaging with this subject for a while.","A group of twelve persons is selected on the basis of the letters of application received.","These persons are selected in the best possible way according to population group, age and region and they must be interested in the issue concerned, without being experts or already having an outspoken opinion.","Under the leadership of a neutral chairman, these people come together during two weekends.","They will explore the problem, read documentation and, ultimately, draw up a list of experts they wish to consult.","During the third weekend the experts give answers to the questions raised by the twelve persons.","After that, the twelve persons write down their final conclusion, usually in a document of not more than three pages.","The neutral chairman may write it down for them or they may do it on their own.","Parts of the process are covered by the press.","The final outcome often is a good reflection of the public opinion on the issue.","Or, to put it in other words: Consensus conferences produce advices which have public support.","Read: communication 3: Research and public support","./en_read_communication_3.htm","7,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[56]=new Array("Read Extra 1: Technique of the exploratory interview The exploratory interview.","Exploratory interviews are meant to gain insight in the frame of reference of an interviewee.","By effectively using some interview skills the interviewee is stimulated to tell about his or hers perception and emotional valuing of a certain topic.","What matters are personal perceptions and personal interpretations (ideas, opinions, expectations, wishes etc.): all subjective information within the individual frame of reference of the interviewee.","Exploratory interviews in connection with consultancy are meant to complete the hard information (obtained by written sources or standardized interviews) with the (emotional) perceptions of the people involved.","Technical interview skills of exploration are: summaries, connecting questions and reflections.","Functions of summarizing:","summarizing means acceptance: I consider everything you say important","by summarizing the choice of the most important items within the interview topic is up to the interviewee","summarizing shows that the interviewer has heard and understood the content of the story of the interviewee","summarizing is a check of completeness and offers the opportunity to add complementary material","a summary invites the interviewee to go on","a summary makes it possible to take a next step in the thinking process Characteristics of connecting questions:","open","inviting","connected to the material already presented (i.e.","not introducing new aspects)","with the melody of a question Examples:","what did it mean for you?","can you tell me more about ...","what do you mean by..? Reflecting is:","Summarizing a part of the material presented by the interviewee, from one word up to some sentences, with the intonation of a question.","The choice which part of the material should be reflected is made by the interviewer, judging the importance of the chosen aspects for the interviewee.","There are factual and emotional reflections.","Examples:","Itee: It was annoying that it took so much time before my opnion was asked.","Reflection interviewer:","Factual: your opinion?","Emotional: annoying?","Read: Extra: 1: Technique of the exploratory interview","./en_read_extra_1.htm","2,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[57]=new Array("Read Extra 2: The main styles of consultancy CONSULTING AND ADVISING: Solving the problem or helping to solve the problem.","A client organisation with a problem often expects that the consultant will solve the problems of the organisation.","The consultant can choose to act in two different ways:","solving the problem","enlarging the capacity of the organisation (or the client) to solve problems","The practice of consulting consists of both.","The first choice reflects the consultant as the expert, the second of the consultant as a processor (consultative style).","The consultant as the problem solver","Sometimes the consultant is direct confronted with the question to solve the problem.","A competent consultant will feel the tendency to act immediately, and to solve the problem (if he or she can do so).","Advantage: the problem will be solved and it will be done quick and good.","Disadvantage: the problem solving capacity of the client(organisation) will not be improved.","When the same occurs a couple of times, the proof that a competent outsider is needed to solve problems will lead to  trained incompetence.","What is the alternative?","The alternative could be that the energy of the consultant is invested in the management or workers, in order to enable them to solve problems.","A ----> B -----> * (A is helping B in solving the problem, instead of overtaking the problem and solving it)","A ----> B <----> C (A is helping B to solve the problems with C, instead of intervening)","This approach should be continued in the organisation itself.","The management should have the same consultative style towards the workers.","Difficulties:","problems are attractive (the consultant is often consultant for the very reason that she or he has the capacity to solve the problems.","And this approach forbids to solve problems....)","it looks as if the consultant is incompetent (is it bearable for the consultant to accept those appearances)","to be satisfied with a good solution: good is good enough (instead of the own brilliant solution)","The art of being a consultant is partly the art of being a  reflective practitioner.","Next to the formal ways of learning, being reflective implies knowing your script.","What is a script?","A script is the unconscious in-explicit prescription of how you should work.","The do's and don'ts in your work, the way I always do it, and the assumptions of meanings.","Scripts offer security.","They are comparable with the variety of fixed patterns that offer safety (the rituals in meeting procedures, the place you will choose ).","They form a necessary shorthand in everyday's normal life, but they may form limits in the working life of the professional.","Where do scripts come from?","The may be connected to the professional or peer group.","Doctors think that offering a diagnosis is offering help.","Teachers interpret problems as knowledge gaps, feminists interpret problems in terms of imbalanced power between men and women.","They may be originated in important passed experiences, for instance in the family-socialization.","Or they form part of the personality.","Some people always take the lead, some are always a bit suspicious, some are always looking for the guilty ones, some think always that the management is the cause of the problem, some always try to avoid conflicts, some try always to gain control or dominance, some are always morally indignant or...some always try to solve the problem","Scripts show themselves in the initial thoughts, in the immediate inclinations, in the definitions of the problem and in the intentions to act.","Maybe they are true and justified, but they are more connected to the consultant than to the specific situation.","How to avoid the pitfall of the script?","By reflection and self-knowledge.","Consultants should try to understand when they ascribe intentions to others and they should be aware how they themselves - almost automatically- interpret the story of others.","This demands a big deal of self-knowledge.","Read: Extra 2: The main styles of consultancy","./en_read_extra_2.htm","4,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[58]=new Array("Read Extra 3: Diagnosing an organisation","The organisation should present a problem or a question, rather than just asking for an consultant exploration.","The process of diagnosing by a consultant is comparable by with the diagnostics of a doctor.","When a patient asks a doctor for a medical check up (a very broad question) the answer is perforce superficially.","Only in the case that there are striking symptoms that refer to an illness, the doctor can give sensible judgments.","If those symptoms are absent, the answer is inevitably rough.","The same type of uninteresting answers is to be expected if the doctor is asked to measure the blood pressure (a narrow request).","It is high, normal or low.","So what? The available medical diagnostics can provide interesting information if the search is guided by the right question.","And the right question arises from a conceptual model in the patient's frame of reference.","An example of right questions is for instance: I am dog-tired in the evening nowadays and I had some funny tickling in my arms lately.","Could it be that my heart condition is responsible for that? Such a question reveals the area in which the patient is interested and why.","The search process of the doctor will be a more sensible one.","The same is true for consultancy- diagnostics.","The organization should explore its own question, in order to enable the consultant to produce interesting information.","Examples of such questions are: can we do better on innovation.","Or: can we raise the level of participation of our organization.","Or: is our organizational development in line with our intended results.","Or: can we improve the degree of professionalization of our organization.","Or: how can we improve our accountability.","The objective reality and the underlying dynamics.","A consultant can offer two types of information upon a certain aspect of an organisation.","The first aspect is the factual situation: the facts and figures concerning that aspect.","The second aspect is related to the underlying mechanisms, often dealing with the potential capacities of the organisation or with its limits to fully use them.","Both are important to get some insight in the current situation of the functioning of organisations.","And to be true, the second source of information is even more interesting than the first, because the potentials of an organisation can tell more about learning capacities and possibilities for improvement.","Let's look at for instance the degree of client-centeredness of organisations.","An example: An organisation asks for help in order to improve its client centeredness.","The consultant can get a picture of the degree of client-centeredness of the organisation by looking for symptoms and signs.","For instance: how much time does it take before a letter of a client is answered, does the organisation have a system for processing complaints, how often does the organisation measure client satisfaction, how often rings a telephone before answered etc.","The information gathered, offers a picture of the degree in which an organization is client oriented.","And if the outcome is to be considered insufficient, than the organisation has to make new intentions.","From now on we try to answer the telephone before it rings for the third time.","Or: responses to letters shall be send within two weeks after receipt.","Such intentions are mostly sincere, but the reality of the habits of an organization is not always influenced by good intentions.","Why not?","Because there are probably 'good' reasons for the lack of client-centeredness.","And changing the habits of an organization will only succeed if the underlying motives are understood and are taken into account.","So in investigating the client-centeredness of an organization, the potential capacities of the organisation to act client centred should be taken into account.","The question is not only wether or not the actual behaviour of the organisation meets the demands of the client.","The next question is in which aspects the organisation will be capable to client-centred behaviour in the future.","To answer that second question we need to know the underlying factors that could explain the lacking of client-centred behaviour.","Potential capacities.","Defining not only the actual performance on client centeredness but also the mechanisms that cause a lack of client centeredness (influencing thus also the potentials to realise client centeredness in the future) requires a search for hidden conditions, for explaining factors of the seemingly self evident reality.","Why is this  certain organization not capable to meet the demands of their clients? What are the hidden dynamics in neglecting the wishes of clients? Which are the missing conditions for client-centeredness? And so on and so on.","The answers to such questions can be found in a dialogue between the consultant with his or hers organizational point of view and the organisation with it's experience and insight knowledge.","The need to know the underlying mechanisms.","The consultant can measure the objective performance of the organization on a certain organizational aspect.","But for recommendations such a objective investigation is too meagre.","In order to help the organization to improve its efforts on the aspect, we have to know which underlying factors contribute to the performance.","A dynamic analysis is needed.","Without a dynamic analysis recommendations will stick in having the right intentions.","In the example of the organizational aspect of client centeredness, an organization could do bad on the objective measuring.","It takes days and days before letters are answered, for example.","The flat, superficial, non dynamic recommendation of the consultant would be: answer your letters earlier.","If the consultant investigates the dynamic mechanisms underlying the lack of client centeredness, one of the most decisive factors for the lack of client centeredness in this organisation could turn out to be the degree in which the organisation has decentralized the realization of quality.","If the management style does not stimulate an external orientation, and if the staff in all functions and at all levels gets no freedom of action in meeting the demands of the client, then there is a real risk that the formal policy on client-centeredness is not put into practise.","So, recommendations to improve have to go beyond: answer your letters quickly.","Without a dynamic underlying explanatory model it is impossible to recommend ways of improvement that will turn out to be effective.","The underlying mechanisms of the lack of client centeredness in a specific organisation could consist of course of more elements than only decentralization of quality.","We could for instance think of causing factors like: dependency of clients (that is why governmental institutions in their monopoly-position can afford to act rather careless towards citizens), a lack of accessibility and susceptibility, a poor learning ability (for instance the possibilities for feed back loops, learning from experiences), too little external orientation and no involvement of clients.","In each case the consultant has to look for the very causing underlying mechanisms.","Read: Extra 3: Diagnosing an organisation","./en_read_extra_3.htm","7,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[59]=new Array("Read Extra 4: A dynamic way of thinking","OD consultants need to have a dynamic way of thinking of organizations and their problems.","In order to analyse organizational aspects and in order to be able to suggest actions for improvement, their is a need for effective, sustainable, quick, simple and if possible cheap solutions.","Quick and simpel.","Being able to solve a problem in a quick way points to being a (wo)man of action.","And that is what almost everyone wants to be.","Some solutions for problems derive their beauty from their simplicity.","Take for instance the television receiver set that is out of order.","The competent mechanic opens the backside of the apparatus and says: I see, the small transistor here needs to be replaced.","That is all.","Attractive in this approach is that the observation is at the same time the analysis and the solution.","The act of solving the problem gives the air of competence to the one who opened the back side of the TV set.",""I am glad I called for an expert", we hear the client think.","The need for a thorough analysis.","In most cases, organizational consultants cannot make this three-in-one action (observation, analysis and solution).","A data-based analysis is needed.","What is an analysis?","An analysis finds itself between the observation and the advice.","It is a re-definition of the problem in terms of underlying factors.","Why analysing the problem?","In approaching the problem of an organization the analysis is sometimes skipped over.","The observation is for instance: there is a lack of coordination.","Advice: there should be some coordination.","The objection of such advice is that it commands without surplus value.","Sometimes however, the client system likes to be commanded, or even worse, to be punished by the consultant.","So maybe giving commands satisfy the superficial needs of the client system without really adding to its competence.","The consultant will have to resist the temptation to simply commend the reverse of what is observed:","regular meetings of coworkers are lacking, so there should be regular meetings","there is a lack of productivity, so people should stop their idling","the organisation did not define the priorities, so there should be some priority setting.","In all these examples there is a lack of understanding why the problem is occurring.","The dropping of the workers meeting could for instance be caused by an autocratic leader who does not like drawing the opinions of his collaborators in his decision making.","The idling could be caused by a collective hiding of insufficient competence.","The lack of priorities could be caused by the year after year struggle between two leaders who rather would sacrifice the organization instead of themselves.","The analysis, first step.","The first step in the analysis is the systematic collection of information, for instance by desk research and by interviewing people.","The results of the first step can be a rough scan of the problems. ","In the process of drawing the first outlines, the consultant/researcher should invest in keeping the image clean.","It means controlling the own opinions and preventing the own frame of reference from influencing the results.","In terms of interviewing it means bringing into action the exploratory interview skills.","The core of the analysis is answering the question: why is it like it is, what is up in this organization, what could explain this situation or these problems.","In this phase the consultant will meet first-stage-elements in the analysis.","The explanation of the problems of the organisation can be attributed to bad functioning people, groups, procedures or systems.","Examples:","Analysis of problems occurring in local politics: arrogance of power.","Analysis of an organization with a big streaming out of personnel: malfunctioning management.","Analysis of an organization with marketing problems: the members of the counter staff are treating the clients churlishly.","Analysis of failing internal communication: the bulletin board is not good.","Guilty people loom up, clumsy and wicked people are responsible for the problems.","And sometimes it not at all untrue.","Sometimes people are incompetent and sometimes rules and regulations are ineffective.","But, nevertheless, analyses like that present some difficulties.","The first difficulty is of pragmatic nature: it stresses the problematic or negative aspects, while the motivation of people is needed to solve the problem.","Motivation is more easily triggered by a positive approach then by a negative one.","The second difficulty is also of a pragmatic nature, but at the side of the consultant: the consultant observes all kind of guilty or blockheaded people and can come angry with them.","Anger obstructs consulting.","Even if the only problem would be that a part of the analysis cannot be told to everybody.","The third difficulty is of a more philosophic nature.","A doctor cannot blame the patient for being ill.","The illness is the very reason why the doctor had been called.","The fourth difficulty is perhaps the most important one.","An analysis characterized by guilty and blockheaded people cannot lead to a sustainable solution.","It simply does not work.","The underlying problems will block the effectivity of the seemingly obvious solution.","The elimination of people or procedures is seldom serving a sustainable improvement of the situation.","Dynamizing, the second step.","The alternative is the dynamic analysis.","A dynamic analysis is an attempt to enrich the analysis by diving under the surface.","There are forces which cause, maintain or feed the problem.","Those forces are part of a bigger pattern of forces, WHICH ARE NOT ALL NEGATIVE AND WHICH ARE NOT IN THE MAIN NEGATIVE.","Let's try to understand the surface phenomena by entering the underlying pattern and giving it a closer look.","Lines of analysis.","The understanding may be helped by approaching the problem along some lines.","TIME.","Times can have changed.","Was there an important change in the past years? Had this organization troubles to adjust to a changing outside world?","OUTSIDE PUBLIC.","Are there expectations concerning the functioning of the organisation which are not reflected in the inner reality of the organisation?","SPECIFICITY.","Is this organisation different from other comparable organisations in the same line of business? Are there other problems, or other ways of coping? Making a choice for the type of analysis","Sometimes it is not bad to take the first solution that comes into one's mind.","The small transistor of the television set will cost a sixpence.","Maybe there is another technical trouble in the television that caused the failure of the transistor.","One will notice that automatically, when the second transistor also will break.","But sometimes one cannot allow a series of failures.","A well known example is the problem in an organisation caused (so everybody thought) by the incompetent manager.","The next one appointed turns out to be a failure as well.","Such an incident may give rise to the need of exploring the underlying factors.","Known by experience, in organisations transistors hardly ever need replacement by an organisational mechanic.","In the cases replacement is needed, the help of consultants is not necessary, because there are a lot of people who can fix it.","If the fixing not comes of, then most probably there is a damage in the self healing capacity of the organisation.","The real problem then is the damaged capacity of self healing, instead of the incidental trouble.","Exploring the underlying dynamics of that damage is then a necessary condition for the thinking of sustainable solutions.","The understanding of complex organisational problems will be more easy with some knowledge of the history of an organisation, with some awareness of the area in which the organisation has to function and with a bit of feeling for the organizational culture.","STEPS IN THE ANALYSIS","analysis (why do these problems exist, why in this part of the organisation, why now)","test the degree of dynamics of the hypothesis (are there people to be blamed for having caused the problem? Does the consultant feel anger?)","test on usefulness of the dynamic analysis (how much of the observed problems is explained by the hypothesis) In conclusion:","Every passing-by bumpkin can observe that something is going wrong in an organisation, there is no need in being a expert for that.","The art of consulting is to understand why things are going like they do and to motivate people to think of useful instruments to let things work out differently.","Read: Extra 4: A dynamic way of thinking","./en_read_extra_4.htm","9,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[60]=new Array("Read Extra 5: Dynamic diagnosis: helping questions","Are there changes over time, other demands posed onto the organisation? New influences upon the organisation?","Do comparable organisations in the same line of business experience the same problems? (Branch problem rather than a problem specific for this organisation)","Can we answer the following questions:","Why is the problem happening here?","Why is it happening now?","Why in this part of the organisation","Why has it not been solved","Why have earlier attempts to solve the problem failed?","Do people benefit in one way or another from this problem?","Read: Extra 5: Dynamic diagnosis: helping questions","./en_read_extra_5.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[61]=new Array("Read Extra 6: Examples of dynamic diagnoses","Dynamic approach: understanding what is happening in organisations by taking into account the dynamic underlying mechanisms, in order to be able to recommend sustainable solutions.","A consultant should always try to analyse a given problem or question of an organisation in terms of causing or feeding factors: why is it like it is.","Only if consultants really understand why organisations are like they are, only then they will be able to help the organisations to perform better.","Some examples.","Gender policy in the University Hospital.","The question is: help us to implement gender policy in our organisation.","The visible reality: the higher ranks in the organisation, the fewer women.","No changes, in spite of a changing environment on this topic.","Intentions seem to be realized in a half hearted way.","The seeming simple solution: just formulate a gender policy that forces the gatekeepers (professor medical specialists managing the several divisions) to act gender-correctly.","What explains the actual situation? The dynamic approach reveals that the University Hospital is an outstanding example of a professional organisation: highly educated people who form the operating core of the organisation, who are interested only in very high (university level) professional standards, lacking responsibilities for organisational goals that are not related to professional goals, being able to turn their back to society without any risks.","A simple solution just won't work.","The dynamics of this university clinic benefit the scientific development of the profession but prevents at the same time a full grown gender policy.","A solution that takes this dynamic into account is to find a connection between gender policy and the professional content of the work.","The organisation for rights of homosexuals.","The question is: help us to rearrange our internal organisation.","The visible reality: the organisation is subdivided in small parts (political action, administration of members, social activities, aids, magazine etc.) which compete about all and everything.","The members of the board are very close connected to the daily work of the office.","The organisation of the work is horizontal, hardly any hierarchy exists.","Is seems that a lot of energy is lost in internal troubles.","The seeming simple solution: just implement a modern organisational design.","What explains the actual situation? The dynamic approach reveals that the environment of the organisation had changed dramatically over time: from a hostile environment in which almost anybody could be considered as an enemy to a more or less liberal and tolerating community.","The organisation on the other hand kept as its principal communication strategy the attacking, accusing and confronting style.","This divergence caused frustrations and tensions which were agitated internally.","A simple solution just would not work.","The dynamics of this organisational environment caused internal disorders instead of happiness with success.","An organisational design would not meet these underlying problems.","A solution that takes this dynamics into account has to incorporate the actual attitude towards homosexuality in the external world into the internal solution itself.","The department of City Development.","The question is: help us to implement another organisational culture.","Once upon a time we were the forerunners of city development in our country, nowadays we lack an innovative culture.","The visible reality: very hardworking functionaries.","The subsections are small islands which do not co-operate.","A high level of competition in order to gain the attention and approval of the local government.","The seeming simple solution: try to motivate people to implement an innovative organisational culture.","What explains the actual situation? The dynamic approach reveals that, in terms of city development, the city is ready.","The local politicians think that the actual workload for the department needs only a third of the present workforce.","This fact is unknown knowledge for the department, in other words it is a collective secret.","Anybody is denying the fact by working very hard, commenting over en over each others products before they leave the department.","Although people are really working hard the factual production is slender.","Trying to implement an innovative culture would menace the hardly sustained secret.","A solution that takes into account this underlying dynamic has to face the truth.","The truth will kill the needed energy to change the organisational culture.","So no solution at this moment, we have to wait until the organisation will have been downsized.","The phone company","The question is: train our mechanics to become market-oriented.","The visible reality: an organisation that has a monopoly in the country, threatened by the decision of the government to open the market.","High technical quality, poor client centredness.","The seeming simple solution: just train them.","What explains the actual situation? The dynamic approach reveals that the organisational culture is deeply rooted in the history of absolute market power.","The point of view of the organisation was that the client had to be glad that the company would sell them such a beautiful phone, client centredness was totally absent.","Not only with the mechanics.","The whole organisation was imbued with this conviction.","An isolated training in market orientation of only the field staff would be insufficient.","A solution taking into account this dynamics should cover not only the front-service but also the back-service and the internal policies.","SOME CONCLUSIONS:","if only the visible reality is taken into account, the analysis seems to unmask incompetent or even bad people and malfunctioning procedures.","Recommendations based on such superficial analysis are unlikely to really solve the problems.","deeper analysis reveals hidden dynamics that explain the continuation of unwanted practises.","standard underlying factors do not exist.","In each case the specific dynamics can be discovered by exploring the unique history, context or mind of the organisation.","in most cases the dynamics themselves cannot be changed or conquered.","Recommendations or solutions should be based on the existing dynamics or should even make use of them.","Read: Extra 6: Examples of dynamic diagnoses","./en_read_extra_6.htm","7,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[62]=new Array("Read Extra 7: Organisations.","How to understand the dynamics of an organisation 1.","Organisations are like living organisms","Sometimes it can be useful to compare an organisation to a living organism, perhaps to a person.","This means that, in order to understand an organisation, it is useful to:","know something of the history (important moments, traumas)","know about the context (situation in the country, position)","know how it relates to others, now and in the past","know how it solves problems (difficulties, solutions)","know about its image, and self-image","know something about its habits (in ways of working).","An organisation can then be seen as having (developed) its own personality.","Changing an organisation is possible, but requires the kind of energy needed to change habits, lifestyles or set of psychological patterns.","There have always been valid reasons to explain why an organisation has developed the way it has.","Understanding and respecting those reasons is a good basis for working within or with an organisation.","Ideology, external and internal goals","Organisations are usually trying to achieve something out there.","Not always, however; a women consciousness-raising group for instance, could be said to be solely internally orientated.","But when an organisation is offering a series of consciousness-raising activities, it is probably trying to offer opportunities to women to re-evaluate and perhaps change their lives.","An underlying ideology will be concerned with reaching equality between women and men, or fighting exploitation of women.","The ideology, external and internal goals are sometimes clearly identified, but need regular updating, because the world outside and inside the organisation keeps changing.","Ideology is the underlying system of beliefs or values, and the required direction of change.","External goals are descriptions of what an organisation would like to achieve out there - in the long or possibly short term.","These goals may be descriptive (improving the position of the poor) or defined in terms of products (for example, this year we want to teach 400 children, each course taking x amount of time, or we want to put out a monthly magazine and have x number of subscribers).","External goals bear a relationship to the underlying ideology.","Every so often it is necessary to review that relationship.","Internal goals concern the organisation, and particularly the people within it.","An organisation's goal may be to improve its internal communication, or to upgrade the know-how or professionalism of its people.","It may want to introduce a computer system.","These internal goals will be aimed primarily at becoming more effective in achieving the external goals.","The wish to develop a certain type of group dynamic, or to allow personal development or to........  is often related to the external goals (ways of attracting and motivating the right kind of personnel).","But at times, they may stand as goals in their own right (increasing the job opportunities for women, the continuation of the organisation, personal development).","Ideology and external goals may be fairly well articulated, and there is a range of ways in which this can done.","Some organisations have a tradition of detailed ideological discussion.","Other organisations have a more general ideological direction, and are more specific about their short- or long-term goals.","Internal goals may be more implicit.","The official policy and the realities of what occurs in an office often differ to a degree.","Understanding the real motivation and direction of the organisation is not always simple, neither for outsiders nor for the people working within the organisation.","This is because they become socialized, used to doing things in a certain way.","Organisational structure","Organisations structure the work, level of responsibilities, internal and external communication, decision-making processes, etc.","There are many ways of doing this, and different reasons which can be considered when structuring an organisation.","It may be efficient within an industrial context to give workers a small repetitive task which they can learn to do at high speed and with maximum precision.","But there may be reasons concerning job satisfaction (internal goals) which suggest development of a more all-round skilled worker, or job rotation.","A range of considerations can play a role when deciding on matters of responsibility, coordination or control. ","Questions to be considered:","what kind of business is it (service, industry, professional....)?","what are the external goals/products (innovative, precision products.....)?","what are the internal goals (level of and aims concerning the workforce)?","in what phase of development is the organisation (young, consolidated)?","what is acceptable within the organisational and national culture?","Questions of responsibility, hierarchy, leadership etc., depend in part on what people are used to in their culture, or have learned to expect within a particular organisation.","Organisational and national cultures","Certain kinds of jobs need and therefore lead to certain kinds of organisational habits, or ways of doing things.","There are branch cultures.","For example, universities, restaurants, armies, civil service organisations, a sales organisation, NGO's or feminist organisations may have certain things in common, the world over.","We expect to find a strong hierarchy in the army, and considerable professional freedom in a university.","We expect to find a bureaucratic system in state organisations.","Not only the structures but also the often unspoken or social habits within branch organisations are comparable, and differ from organisations in other branches.","When an organisation develops a way in which we do things here, newcomers will partly be selected and partly be socialized to become part of the team or, in other words, to take on the social habits of the organisation.","But such organisational cultures are not only affected by the type of work which is done, but also by the national culture.","More and more research is being done (Hofstede) on differences (and similarities) in national cultures.","A number of dimensions in which cultures differ have been identified:","Power distance (e.g.","acceptable distance between boss and worker).","Individuality (how collective or individualistic is a culture).","Masculinity (how dominant or caring is a culture).","Uncertainty avoidance (how acceptable is risk, are differences).","Long-term or short-term orientation (perseverance or quick results).","This is relevant because it turns out that different national cultures tend to have a preference for certain types of organisational structures and cultures.","Organisations may be structured more (or less) like pyramids, machines, markets or families.","Such differences in organisational structures and cultures lead to very different views of what should be standardized in the organisation (e.g.","the skills, the workers, the work processes, the supervision/control system or the output of work....).","Literature on organisational analysis, consultancy and management probably carries in it the cultural bias of the author.","It is difficult, perhaps even impossible, to be fully aware of such bias in oneself.","Inter cultural exchange allows a growth in the awareness of cultural elements in one's own organisational taste.","NGO's","The importance of recognizing differences in organisational and national cultures is that it means that there is no objective right way of organizing.","An organisation is more or less successful in a certain social context.","A leadership style is more or less effective for an organisation in a certain phase of its development.","Organisational structure and culture are more or less suited to the ideology and external and internal goals which an organisation is attempting to achieve.","Which leads to the conclusion that there is no single correct way of organizing.","And attempts to improve or develop an organisation can only be successful if one takes full account of at least three dynamic lines:","How was the history - what future wishes and perspectives are there?","How is the relationship between the organisation inside and its outside social context?","How do the internal dynamics between the top and the base of the organisation work?","Change in an organisation will be more successful if the personality of the organisation (within its context) is understood in the analysis.","And if the proposed changes are within the range of possibilities of the organisation, because they are based on the strengths and successes, and not only focussed on problems or weaknesses. ","Read: Extra 7: Organisations. How to understand the dynamics of an organisation","./en_read_extra_7.htm","9,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[63]=new Array("Read Extra 8: Knowledge, skills and attitudes of the change agent or consultant.","KNOWLEDGE.","The area's of knowledge of consultants for market parties are: logistics","strategy","organisational change (structure and culture)","marketing","administrative organisation","project management","information technology","technology","education and training","quality.","Give yourself a score (1: knowledge is not particular good, 2: sufficient, 3: good, 4: complete).","Less than 15 points: a junior consultant.","Between 15 and 25: experienced consultant, more than 25: senior consultant.","Consultants for NGO's should have knowledge of the following area's: NGO sector","dynamics of being a value driven organisation and leadership","specific development of NGO's in terms of structure and culture","strategy","marketing (target groups, grassroots, movement, clients)","administrative support","project management","communication (including IT and internet)","education and training","quality systems","Consultants for women NGO's should have specific knowledge of: gender socialisation, also in terms of organisations","the feminist movement","dynamics in women organisations (including with respect to feminist leadership) SKILLS","The consultant in the market sector should have at hers/his disposal the following general skills:","diagnostic skills, specifically the dynamic diagnosis","problem solving skills (creativity, courage to continue, dealing with resistance, didactic qualities, conflict management)","implementation skills (choosing the best strategy, offering support, creating support, motivating)","communicative skills (listening, formulating, giving presentations, writing reports)","marketing- and sale skills (presenting the own qualities)","management qualities (guiding the team)","The consultant for NGO's should add the following skills:","quick scanning the output of a NGO (in terms of quantity and quality)","estimating the motivation of people (ideals and/or salary)","defining the degree of external linkages (to movement, to other NGO's etc.)","The consultant of women NGO's should have as an extra:","the skill to deal with gender topics (from recognising gender socialisation  up to using the feminist values) THE ATTITUDE of a consultant","being authentic & being able to adapt","living up to and working within ethical norms","being empathic and open to a variety of points of view","confidence and credibility","friendly and easy going, entering into a partnership with the client","positive and optimistic attitude (having and showing)","taking initiatives","being able to cooperate in teams","being content without being complimented","being energetic and liking mobility (not having a 9 to 5 job)","self assuredness (without being arrogant)","One of the most decisive factors of success of a consultant is the way he or she gets on with others.","The kind of consultant that is most attractive is the consultant who is genuinely interested, who is not blaming the organisation or individuals, who analyses dynamically and optimistically, aiming more at the success of the client than to his or her own success and who is involved while keeping a professional distance.","Someone who is a good companion, with whom talking, thinking and working is fun.","Read: Extra 8: Knowledge, skills and attitudes of the change agent or consultant","./en_read_extra_8.htm","4,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[64]=new Array("Read Extra 9: Capability: do you make a good consultant?","-1 0 +1","Creating or attributing to new ideas","Communicating in various ways (oral, in writing)","Advice instead of commanding others","Taking initiative at the start and in complex matters","Working frequently in new and different places","Making use of positive interpersonal skills in performing the tasks","Endure little job security","Seeing to it that people have confidence in your judgment","Not always doing the same work","10.","Managing regularly people, projects ans paperwork","11.","Being respected by others","12.","Being in ambiguous, not defined relationships","13.","Meeting a lot of new people in new situations","14.","Disposing of specific expertise","15.","Seeing chances for high economic output","16.","Listening continuously and genuinely to communications of others","17.","Being at one's best without supervision","18.","Using credibility as the result of experience, expertise and credentials","19.","Continuously having to solve problems","20.","Learning new ideas and immediately apply them","21.","Travelling and travelling, being away from home for long periods","22.","The feeling being able to help other people","23.","Holding strong ethical values concerning the way you carry out your work","24.","Being able to stand the fact that your ideas are rejected or are not executed","25.","Working alone for the most part","26.","Being able to sell your services to someone","27.","Working hard and long to finish a project","28.","Feeling responsible for the quality and usefulness of your work","29.","Being responsible for the quality and usefulness of your work","30.","Understanding and using the dynamics of organisations.","Score:","no: -1","moderate: 0","good: +1","Score:","less than 0: better look for another job","0-15: moderate capability","15-30: capable, may be starting own consultancy?","Read: Extra 9: Capability: do you make a good consultant?.","./en_read_extra_9.htm","4,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[65]=new Array("Read Extra 10: Strong and weak points of the change agent or consultant Strong and Weak points of a change agent or consultant","knowledge + +/- -","theory of gender and diversity","organisational development","developments in the NGO sector","skills","exploring interview techniques","analysing","generating support","attitude","optimism","partnership with client","acceptation, not punishing","Read: Extra 10: Strong and weak points of the change agent or consultant","./en_read_extra_10.htm","3","9 dec 2003");
Page[66]=new Array("Read Extra 11: Process or expert","Each apply for an advice and each given advice has two main aspects: one of the content and one of the process.","What has to be done and how are we going to do it.","The question could be for instance: what should be the communication of our organisation.","The content requires knowledge of possible ways of communication, channels of communication and of communicative behaviour.","The process consists of integrating that cognitive knowledge in action: seeing to it that this organisation will communicate effectively and efficiently.","The content aspect of an advice has more or less the characteristics of the medical interview model, the anamnesis doctors use in order to diagnose the complaints.","The doctor is the one who investigates, in which the own medical (expert) frame of reference is used as guideline.","The doctor comes in this way to an expert diagnosis and advices on therapy or prescribes a recipe.","In this analogy the consultant is the expert.","The aspect of the process is based on a model of cooperation, in which the expertise of the consultant is combined with the know how of the insider: the client.","The participation of the client is stimulated in the phase of data collection, in thinking on the analysis and in the phase of the implementation.","The consultant is the facilitator.","In literature authors speak of the resource consultant and the process consultant.","For a long time these two extremes were practised in their pure form.","A consultant was either an expert consultant or a process consultant.","Nowadays the general view is that a good consultant is both.","The modern consultant who represents only one of both poles is no longer taken seriously.","The expert is the consultant who writes beautiful reports for the drawer.","The process facilitator is the one who answers questions with: what do you think yourselves?","Nowadays one thinks more of variation in roles of the consultant.","A consultant has to be able to function in a variety of roles: that of knowledge supplier, of trainer, of conflict interventionist, sparring partner and process facilitator.","The choice which role to take is decided by the nature of the problem and by the part the client or client system can play.","Vrakking (a Dutch author on consultancy) describes a rising hierarchy of role choices of the consultant, from very expert to very process, in which the consultant and the client play complementary roles.","The consultant as reflector, raising questions for reflection.","The specialist on processes, who observes the process of problem solving, who puts questions under discussion in which feedback is reflected.","The collector of information who makes people reflect.","The one who defines alternatives, who helps to overview the consequences and to make the choice.","The one who offers alternatives for problem resolution and who participates in the decision.","The trainer who designs learning experiences.","The technical expert who supplies information and who makes suggestions for decisions on policy or practise.","And the advocate who set the directives, who persuades or who guides the process of problem resolution.","Read: Extra 11: Process or exper","./en_read_extra_11.htm","3,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[67]=new Array("Read Extra 12: Rules of thumb for the change agent's analysis and recommendations","DO IT TOGETHER.","While selecting the relevant data, suited for analysis and recommendations, some discussion with colleague OD-consultants can help to determine the main issues in the analysis and what will be the important parts of the recommendations.","THINK DYNAMICALLY.","Use the dynamic approach to really understand why an organisation has this particular problem.","Be attentive to one's own adrenaline! In the consultant's treatment of an organisation that organisation is never guilty, and should therefore never be blamed for its behaviour.","Dynamic thinking can help to understand the situation and to think of helpful interventions.","INCLUDE OTHER POSSIBILITIES.","Although this approach guarantees the analysis to show a high degree of probability, the real life situation of the organisation can be even more complicated or different.","So try to talk in probabilities and possibilities rather than in evidences and truth.","Always leave open the possibility that the organisation, listening to your analysis, will gain other insights that will maybe better and more appropriate.","PROVOKE ENERGY, NO DEFENCE.","Try to create an atmosphere in which NGO's will reflect on their organisational life, in order to gain insight and to improve its effectiveness.","Change needs energy.","Energy can be tapped by motivating people, by seducing them to think, to participate and to create.","People should be addressed in a way that creates such positive energy.","Try to be a very effective consultant.","People should be eager to work with you because they feel understood, they feel you belief in your strength, and they feel encouraged to (re)discover their own power, creativity and problem solving capacity.","While writing the text of analysis and recommendation, one should check from time to time if the way the user is addressed can provoke energy or will provoke a defensive attitude.","BE A PARTNER, NO OPPONENT.","Take your time to write and rethink.","Stop and take a break at the moment you get tired, otherwise you take the risk that sarcastic or ironic passages pop up in your descriptions.","Be alert to be an ally and to talk from an ally point of view, rather then being a superior or opponent.","Read: Extra 12: Rules of thumb for the change agent's analysis and recommendations","./en_read_extra_12.htm","3","9 dec 2003");
Page[68]=new Array("Read gender&diversity 1: On tokenism","TOKENISM: A pattern in an organization where there is a single individual or a small minority in the midst of a majority.","Lets use an example: a woman in a men dominated firm.","The first pattern: in the spotlight.","A token is highly visible, everyone knows what she does.","She has little privacy.","Anyone else can disappear into the anonymity of the group but the token cannot.","This places pressure on the way she functions.","Partly because the token is held responsible for the future of the other members of her group: if she does badly she will spoil things for the other women(or blacks/people with a handicap etc).","According to the token theory, there are three ways for an individual to react to the spotlight pattern:","becoming a super type of the majority ('Mrs Thatcher', 'one of the boys').","becoming invisible (frozen rabbit: let nobody see me).","a radical stance: by being pinned down in your exceptional position, you manifest yourself as being more radical than you would normally be with your own group of like-minded people.","A second pattern: the presence of a token causes the majority to react more as a group, whether intentionally or unintentionally.","The difference between the members of the majority group seem to be reduced by language use, jokes, codes, common experiences.","For instance: men start to behave in a more 'male' fashion if for the first time a woman joins their department.","This makes it extremely difficult for 'the token': this first woman, to join in, with the likely result that she becomes isolated.","The individual is then faced with the difficult choice between adapting and joining in or being excluded.","Being aware of those patterns can make it easier for management and tokens to understand what is happening and prevent those patterns.","The best prevention is to ensure that a minority is never so small that tokenism is inevitable.","Read: gender & diversity 1: On tokenism","./en_read_gender_diversity_1.htm","2,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[69]=new Array("Read: gender&diversity 2: Diversity in Organisations","These notes are about diversity in organisations:","aspects of making this process of diversity into a success","determining what this organisation means by diversity","relevant theories about the process of diversity","characteristics of an organisation which knows how to handle this diversity.","Over the last few years many organisations have opted for target group policy.","Steps  have been taken to employ a reasonable percentage of women (also in higher positions), black immigrant workers, handicapped people etc.","Diversity as a characteristic of the organisation goes further: one is only satisfied when not only the numbers are right, but also when everyone's talents, input and assets are used, as a result of which the relevant organisation can serve a wider group of customers and become a stimulating workplace for all employees.","In order to allow such a process to succeed the following is necessary: Determining what this organisation means by diversity","a view on what multicultural co-operation is;","an effort from all sides (white and black/immigrant, men and women) in order to allow the co-operation to succeed in practice.","Looking for opportunities in order to use the handling of differences as mutual enrichment;","a code for handling 'overstepping the mark situations'.","This means looking for a good way of reacting to situations of conscious or unconscious racism, of sexism, of exclusion or, more generally, of situations which are going too far.","Who reacts, in what way and how to prevent the undesirable 'rescuer's behaviour'.","clarifying everyone's motives or self interest in diversity.","As people formulate what their interest could be in diversity the chance lessens that diversity is seen as a type of charity towards 'others'.","An organisation which is properly involved in diversity works at solutions in all these areas.","Forming of theories","The following theories assist in the understanding of which processes take place within multicultural co-operation in organisations: 1.","Power theories","If there is a situation of established people and outsiders (as far as this organisation is concerned) the dominant or self-evident will be the norm ('this how we do it here') and the minority is often described in negative terms as a deviation from the dominant, so forcing the minority party often to prove that his or her way of working is possibly different but need not necessarily be worse.","The token theory (originally developed by Rosabeth Moss Kanter) also opens up a number of mechanisms which occur when one single individual has to operate within a majority (tokenism).","Tokens are people with a symbolic function.","They will always be in the spotlight and followed critically.","Their reaction to that can be 'not to stand out' but also emphasizing their exceptional position or contrariwise to  behave as a 'super specimen' of the majority.","In any case a token soon ends up in a special role in which there is little room for independent action.","This is reinforced by the fact that the token is addressed as the representative.","`Do you people like dancing?´ As a representative the token realises that if she fails the next person from that same group will get it a lot tougher.","Another pattern is that the majority starts behaving, consciously or unconsciously, as a group.","The differences amongst the members of the majority appear to get smaller by the use of language, jokes, codes, communal experiences etc.","The effect on the token can be a feeling of exclusion.","A token then has the hard task of choosing to adapt and join in or to remain an appendage.","Moss Kanter did her research amongst women working in male bulwarks.","Marlies Ott has done similar research in Holland amongst women police officers and male nurses.","This research shows that token effects only occur when a individual is from a group which takes in a lower position in the external world.","Cultural differences","Geert Hofstede has done research worldwide in 53 countries into the influence of national cultural characteristics.","He found five dimensions in which cultures differ.","Individualism/collectivism: the extent to which individual development and self interest are central, or contrariwise the interest of the group is given priority.","For people from countries with a collective culture it may be hard to ask for delivery of an individual performance; whereas for those from a more individual culture delivering a group performance might be unsatisfactory.","Relinquishment of power: the extent to which people accept that power is distributed unequally.","In some countries it is more usual to go along with the person who is leading, while in other countries it is usual that people in leading positions and employees deal with each other on an equal basis.","Avoiding uncertainty: the extent to which people wish that their conduct (and that of others) proceeds according to predictable patterns or the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertain or unfamiliar situations.","Differences at this point can lead in a group to the fact that some people can work only with clearly defined instructions, while others can handle open  instructions or questions.","Masculinity-femininity: if sex roles are clearly separated in a country this country rates highly on the masculine side.","A society is feminine when the sex roles overlap; both men and women are considered to be modest and gentle and focussed on the quality of existence.","In meetings these differences can for example lead to more or less care for each other, or to more or less dominant personal profiling.","Short term against long term bias.","In a country which is focussed more on the long term, values are directed more in the future, such as perseverance, status, frugality and sense of shame.","In a country which is more focussed on the short term respect for tradition, equilibrium and the observing of duties score higher.","These differences in culture often manifest themselves in the way in which people deal with instructions, arrangements, conflicts and leadership; all aspects which impact upon how smoothly a multicultural organisation runs.","Apart from cultural differences  as such there are dimensions which are connected to a class background, or sex of course, which also impacts upon how people experience the interaction between them.","Insight into this and respect are ingredients which cannot be neglected.","Identity theories","Everyone has  different identities: a sexual identity (man/woman), an ethnic identity (black/ white/immigrant), but also for example a job identity.","At which moment is one being addressed in which identity, and foremost: who determines this? Do you do that yourself or does the dominant group do it?","People from minority groups often react from a victims role.","To be a victim or to have been a victim is a genuine experience, despite the negative overtones.","But this is not the most effective role when changes need to be achieved.","People can take up a different position, that of warrior or strategist.","The dominant groups too are often caught in a certain role, and can feel threatened or guilty.","Here too it applies that there are developments possible for making alliances: what do we expect from each other and what can each person do from a different position in order to achieve as fertile a working climate as possible.","Characteristics of a multicultural organisation","A multicultural organisation can be recognised by the following characteristics.","Diversity as far as background, age, sexual orientation (etc) is concerned must be apparent in:","the composition of the board and employees (all positions and levels);","the external availability through which several target groups feel addressed (policy, content and presentation: choice of words, images);","an internal policy with specific target directed projects (if necessary) and attention to diversity within the regular internal policy;","the naturalness that black/immigrant employees do not exclusively work within their own target group or on target directed projects;","a possibility for employees who want to organise themselves on the basis of one aspect of their identity: 1) for interchange amongst themselves and 2) as source for enrichment of methods and mode of operation of the whole institution;","a style of consultation, communication and advice which is more varied than just verbal or written and in which the person and work are linked;","a climate in which:","etiquette, rules and rituals originate from different backgrounds;","respect exists for differences and understanding for agreements linked to a preparedness to allow for mutual influencing;","all differences from a society's point of view are loaded with power can be discussed;","token patterns and exclusion mechanisms for managing staff and colleagues as a group are recognised and addressed;","cultural/ethnic background is considered as one aspect of someone's identity (alongside class/age, sexual preference, professional identity etc.) and therefore is not over emphasized; the point of departure is the individual experience of culture which is subject to change;","humour can be expressed from the certainty (on the side of both parties) that the relationship between the majority and minority group is good;","A multicultural organisation 'knows' what the relevance is of the above mentioned characteristics and has the vision to explain this internally and externally.","Furthermore people at work are those who have done something themselves concerning their own socialisation/identity.","They know their own different positions where dominance/minority is concerned or are prepared to tackle it.","Read: gender & diversity 2: Diversity in Organisations","./en_read_gender_diversity_2.htm","10,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[70]=new Array("Read gender&diversity 3: Gender policy: goals and actions What is gender policy about?","The purpose of gender policy: working towards an organization which adopts gender perspective as the starting point of its internal and external policy;","The result of gender policy is characterised by the fact that societal norms regarding "masculinity" and "femininity" are broken and that women and men have equal access to power, authority and resources.","This is visible in the goals, strategy, structure and culture of the organization.","Gender is not just the number of women in the management of an organization, or in the number of projects directed towards women.","Gender aspects can also be found in the way in which decisions are taken, in the choice of external cooperative partners, in the manner in which the private lives of the staff are taken into account, etc.","In other words: gender policy affects the whole organization.","Gender analysis","Anyone who implements or wishes to implement gender policy does so on the basis of an analysis of the organization.","An analysis can be made on the basis of the following questions: - External Policy -","What are the goals of this organization? In which way can these goals explicitly contribute to the preservation or destruction of gender-stereotyped power relations and norms? Which assumptions underlie the goals of the organization in relation to gender?","What are the products/services/activities/projects of this organization? How do they contribute to the preservation or destruction of gender-stereotyped patterns and relations?","Who are the clients and beneficiaries of the products and services? Who aren't? What does this tell us about gender assumptions?","Which clients and customers are satisfied with the products and services? Which aren't? What does this mean in gender terms?","What is the image of this organization in the eyes of men and women, with and without positions of power?","In which way have gender aspects been incorporated in a strategic study of the future? Have political, economic and social developments also been analysed in terms of their consequences for gender relations?","How do the organization's external relations look? Can they be typified as organisations with successful gender policies? - Internal policy -","How many men/women work in the organization and in which positions?","How many people with and without responsibility for caring for children and/or elderly people work in the organization? What problems arise when staff members wish to combine their work with caring tasks?","Have measures been taken to promote the intake and promotion of women and to prevent undesirable outflow?","Is there policy and have measures been taken to prevent and combat sexual intimidation?","Which gender norms are illustrated by the way in which employees work together, provide leadership and communicate?","Are new employees selected on the basis of their gender awareness and are gender aspects incorporated as a starting point in all training courses and programmes? Gender Policy","A gender policy can be drawn up on the basis of the gender analysis.","This will certainly include:","main goals","short term goals, detailed towards concrete results","measures to achieve those results","responsibilities","communication plan","budget","timetable","reportage and evaluation Essential factors of success","commitment among leadership of organization","a "pioneer" for the gender policy with sufficient status, influence, expertise, sense of humour, strategic insight","realistic attainable goals","space to further detail, in a decentralised way, aims and measures",""own interest" visible to staff and organization","progress reporting on the basis of concrete results and figures","participation and support in the organization","make success visible.","Read: gender & diversity 3: Gender policy: goals and actions","./en_read_gender_diversity_3.htm","4,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[71]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 1: Some aspects of management or leadership.","facilitating:","creating moments/conditions for information-exchange","creating moments/procedures/opportunities for discussion and policy making guarding/controlling:","that decisions are being taken","that decisions are implemented","that evaluations are being done stimulating/motivating:","ensure that as much people as possible are participating in discussion/decision making","explore what individuals/groups need to participate or to feel good in the organisation delegating:","leaving as much as possible to the people involved, let them decide how to reach their results; this is to prevent "trained incompetence".","delegating decision power:","at certain aspects and for a certain period of time decision power can be delegated to a leader","Read: management & leadership 1: Some aspects of management or leadership","./en_read_management_leadership_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[72]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 2: Differences between management and leadership.","Some quotes from Bennis, a leading author on leadership.","(Bennis: On becoming a leader.","Addison Wesley, NY 1989) 'The most crucial characteristics of leadership are vision, ideas and determining the direction; it has more to do with inspiring people with the direction and the goals then with guiding the daily course of things.'","'Leaders do the right things, managers do the things right.'","Managers Leaders","control innovate","are a copy are the original","maintain develop","aim at systems and structures aim at people","have confidence in control inspire towards confidence","aim at short term aim at long term","ask how and when ask what and why","pay attention to bottom line pay attention to horizon","take status quo as given challenge status-quo","do what they are told to do follow their inner voice","do things right do the right things","A conclusion on the basis of some authors on leadership (Bass & Stogdill, Bennis, Covey, Gardner, Greenleaf, Hesselbein, Kinds, Kotter, Kouzes, Owen, Renesch, White and Zaleznik) is that leadership is based on three elements: personal traits, system of values and norms and skills.","Literature describes (and prescribes) so to speak the ideal leader.","He or she would be characterised by:","personal traits: internal locus of control, credibility, emotional intelligence","system of values and norms: moral authority, involvement, guiding vision","skills: learning ability, empowerment, cooperation and networking","In a study, carried out by De Groot, it turned out that only the system of values and norms is significantly discerning managers from leaders.","In other words: there are good and bad leaders and good and bad managers, but the main distinction is that leaders are unusual value driven.","Read: management & leadership 2: Differences between management and leadership","./en_read_management_leadership_2.htm","3,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[73]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 3: A consulting (or coaching) style of leadership","There are many theories about leadership and styles of leading.","Absolute theories","A traditional bipolar distinction is the democratic or autocratic leader.","The directive or participative leader, the task- or human-oriented leader and the result- or process-oriented leader.","Complex leadership styles are the result of a combination of those bipolar characteristics, leading to four different styles: the dictator, the integrator, the coordinator and the facilitator.","Another classification is instrumental, supportive, participative or performance-oriented leadership Contingency theories","The path-goal theory (Greiner), a complex theory about the interaction between leader and workers, which uses a variety of criteria: complexity of tasks, personality of workers, character of the leader, motivational aspects and performances.","The situational leadership theory (Hersey & Blanchard): a leader-follower model.","The maturity of the tasks involved demands different leadership styles: limited follower maturity requires the telling style of leadership, moderate maturity requires the selling style, a reasonable amount of task maturity requires the participative style and high maturity requires a delegating style.","The vertical dyad linkage theory (leader member exchange) stresses the mutual exchange character of the relation between the leader and each individual subordinate.","The culturally defined style of leadership (see: Hofstede) : the implicit organizational models family (considerable hierarchy, few rules), village market (few structures, mutual adjustment), well-oiled machine (standardization) and pyramid of people (standardization, direct supervision and considerable structure).","Components that justify the contingency approach of leadership style are","aspects depending on the question: what business are we in (the nature of the product, the image of the organization, the rate of technology involved, etc.)","the stage of development of the organization (each phase of development requires another dominant leadership style)","the subordinates (the education of the workers, the involvement with the organization, etc.)","the culture of the organization (and the geographic, ethnic and local cultural elements)  and","the personality of the leader (not everyone can excel in the same matters).","Leadership in countries with an individualistic culture.","Different cultures require different styles of leadership.","In countries with an individualistic culture, the successful manager will often adopt a low profile.","An individualistic culture means that individualism is present everywhere, within and outside organizations.","Organizations will meet the demands of the environment by delivering tailor-made products.","Important is a full scope of responsibility for the workers, few specific rules and the allowance of some latitude in the practical execution of plans or policy."," The fact that the workers have to be free (to a certain degree) to satisfy the needs of the clients raises a problem: how can the manager guarantee that the products will be in line with the goals of the organization?"," The leaders or managers have to practice a style not opposed to that high degree of individualism.","Simply giving orders is not a feasible coordinating mechanism.","Such a style would hinder the problem-solving capacity needed to meet the modern challenges outside the organization.","Holding a speech about the organizational goals once a year is not enough to transform those goals into living concepts that function as guidelines for action.","The answer is a consulting style of leadership.","Individualism, especially if combined with short power distance, allows space for a form of advice that is fairly open-ended.","The core of the consulting or coaching style is: to grasp 1001 chances to translate the goals into day-to-day guidelines, to connect and translate abstract intentions into concrete actions and concrete problem-solving.","The consulting style consists of two skills: promoting a problem-solving way of thinking amongst workers, and using a consultative attitude when confronted with problems, choosing which goal will be the target in a specific situation.","Goals may be general organizational goals, goals relevant to certain sectors within the organization, goals deduced from the personnel policy, goals to improve the functioning of the individual staff member and goals simply linked to the problem at hand.","Basic assumptions of the leader","McGregor describes a mechanistic and a human concept of leadership.","The concept is about the way the leader thinks of people.","The mechanistic concept called Y-theory:","people hate working","that is why coercion is needed to get them to work","negative sanctions are the best motivators","the employee avoids responsibility","money is an effective reinforcer","The human concept called X-theory:","people are looking for satisfaction and development in their work","they want responsibility and want to make efforts to succeed","they dedicate themselves to their work as long as they are appreciated","and they are creative if they get the opportunity.","This way of looking at people becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.","Read: management&leadership 3: A consulting (or coaching) style of leadership","./en_read_management_leadership_3.htm","6,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[74]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 4: Human resource management","The term human resources began to be used in management science in the mid-sixties.","The model is directed at improving the deployment of the available manpower and leads to improved decision-making and control, while a bi-product is greater satisfaction on the part of the employees.","Since the early eighties human resources management has been developing into a science.","The emphasis is primarily on the links between the strategy of an organisation (strategic planning, strategic management, strategic policy implementation) and the manner in which the personnel is employed as an implement of strategy.","The awareness is growing gradually that human resources management is a perfect tool for realising company goals.","The most well-developed part of the theory of human resource management is the construction of mutually-influential and mutually-reinforcing personnel instruments related to a strategic development plan.","One can, for example, distinguish the following components: selection, placement and promotion, motivation of employees through rewards, training and development and evaluation.","All these components can reinforce each other in a sort of master plan, in which the tasks are designed, the organisation is structured and the products and services are planned in order to respond to threats and opportunities in the (future) environment.","HRM offers a clear point of departure, but little guidance when it comes to "ordinary" management skills.","The management of an organisation thinking of applying human resources management may find the following pages useful.  1.","Dealing with less competent employees","The quality of employees is much like the quality of all collections: some are better than others and some are worse than the rest.","If you have ten Rolls Royces, one still has to be the best and one the worst.","This may be a generalisation, but it's one which management should reflect on occasionally.","Because, when management is examining the potential of the organisation, one or more employees, one or more members of middle management, one or more senior executives will always catch their eye because he or she is not as good as the others.","But if these less good employees were to be replaced by perfect ones, there would still be one or more employees about whom management would think: they're not as good as the others.","The constant replacement of the least good employees by better ones will result in an improvement in the average quality of the whole organisation, but it does not lead to satisfaction.","It creates an unsafe atmosphere.","Repeatedly sawing away the bottom step will eventually make a ladder unusable.","Dealing with promising employees","Just as the danger of absolute judgement threatens the least good employees, absolute judgement can also have unpleasant consequences for the best members of the team.","The problem here is the well-known Peter Principle: each person is promoted to its level of incompetence.","Those who are best at implementation are made supervisors, the best trainers become policy makers for training courses, the best financial workers are expected to lead a team of colleagues.","The mistakes made in promoting people have already caused enormous suffering, especially since any reversal of the decision is seen as loss of face by all concerned.","The practice of promotion is often based on the idea that it ensures talent remains available to the organisation.","But there are other ways of ensuring this: creating challenging work in consultation with the parties involved, setting up temporary projects in which those involved can experiment with talents as yet untapped, task rotation, loaning employees to other organisations, etc.","Trained incompetence","Management should know which people are to be the core of the organisation in the near future.","A decision of this kind must not be taken half-heartedly like: Okay I'll try it with X then, but if it doesn't work I'll find a way to get rid of X.","Under those conditions X wont stand a chance to display his or her real talents.","Because even X's can tell perfectly well when their bosses don't really appreciate them.","An X who is taken along by the management against their better judgement in a process of change is a self-fulfilling prophecy with regard to poor quality work.",""Trained incompetence" is the phenomenon that turns perfectly competent people into incapable ones.","The cause of trained incompetence can be the set of regulations which in the long term discourages people from independent thinking and problem solving.","Apart from the straightjacket of regulations, codes and procedures, also disbelief in the abilities of the employee can create this kind of incompetence.","Sometimes belittling comments can render an entire team completely clumsy and incompetent.","Real incompetence","Now it's time to take a look at the members of the team who genuinely don't function all that wonderfully.","Not because of trained incompetence or because of the Peter Principle, but simply because they just aren't that wonderful.","The manager who has decided sincerely to keep someone of this kind, must ensure that management and human resources management are implemented just the same in this case.","Developing someone's strengths and protecting the organisation against their weaknesses.","That calls for concentrated attention from management for the weaker figures.","Management will have to force itself to analyse and possibly revise its own hierarchy of attention, in order, in matching tasks and people, to offer opportunities for the development of the strong points of the weaker brother or sister.","Often the problem with a poorly-functioning employee is that it has never actually been determined, together with the person involved, what he or she would be good at.","There is a certain reticence about doing so afterwards, particularly when someone has been with the organisation for a number of years.","Instead of approaching him or her, a new attempt is simply launched, in other words management thinks up a position in which the employee might have better prospects and then effects the transfer.","This won´t work, because the implicit message overshadows the new opportunity: you are not satisfactory where you are now.","The person involved could even think that the new job may well be its last chance.","A two-way discussion is therefore preferable.","Even better if discussions of this kind are held regularly with all employees.","Best of all would be if management themselves would occasionally have a performance discussion with senior management or the board.","There are a surprising number of people at all levels of organisations who simply do not known whether or not they are functioning satisfactorily.","Read: management & leadership 4: Human resource management","./en_read_management_leadership_4.htm","7,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[75]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 5: External and internal steering of organizations: the stick, the carrot and the sermon","To achieve a goal with the help of others requires getting people to move in the right direction.","Core elements of steering people are: transferring convictions to others, division of tasks (who does what) and coordination (of activities).","External steering: control of (a part of) society by the government or interest groups.","Internal steering: control of an organization by the management, a staff department with coordinating and influencing authorities (equal opportunities department, personnel department), or a representative advisory body.","Because of the many changes occurring in this field, 'steering' is a topical issue.","Managers with a feel for social development want to give their employees the chance to work independently.","Delegating authorities, giving responsibilities to lower levels of the organization, freedom of implementation: these are concepts belonging to an individualized society and a liberated employee.","But the other side of individualization is the question of community.","How can managers ensure that the organization's objectives are attained? How can managers control and direct all those autonomous employees, who have goals of their own as well? Enforcing community, using orders, is a thing of the past.","There is a need for control instruments that are not necessarily invested with power.","Norms and values should be the basis underlying steering: steering is more and more a question of people being convinced themselves that they must attain a common goal.","Besides, in reality 'the government' or 'the management' are less and less the parties unilaterally determining the goal.","The goal is increasingly the result of communication between various players: the government and its citizens, the management and its employees.","This is in line with a participative and consultative management style.","Managers and change agents commit themselves to making the organization's objectives a living reality for every individual in the organization.","Control instruments","The science of public administration distinguishes between the formal and informal control instruments used by governments.","The formal instruments (a to e) are the 'classical' ones, the informal instruments (f and h) are being applied more and more frequently.","legislation and regulation: two functions: 1) formulating rules and ensuring compliance, and 2) enforcing specific behaviour through rules.","financing: making money available ad hoc through grants, rewards, premiums or structural financing on the basis of specific agreements, such as output financing, input financing, budget, allowance, lump sum;","information and education, to the extent that it influences behaviour in a certain way;","planning: formulating plans and making arrangements on their implementation;","organization: e.g.","pooling know-how and skills in a centre of expertise;","persuasion;","negotiation;","personal influencing of individuals and organizations (e.g.","by appointing an equal opportunities officer).","In reality, people hardly ever try to achieve a goal with just one single instrument - there is always a certain mix of instruments, with no more than one instrument being dominant.","Three types of steering","There are three different types of steering, each based on a different concept.","Direct regulation: steering by means of do's and don'ts ('the stick').","Indirect regulation: steering by making certain behavioural alternatives unattractive or attractive ('the carrot').","Self-regulation: convincing organizations or groups of citizens that they have to be responsible themselves for their direction ('the sermon').","The most important control instruments for direct regulation are legislation and rules.","Most traditional government steering is of this type.","The main instrument for indirect regulation is granting premiums/subsidies, although information and education are also employed to influence behaviour.","For self-regulation, there are a number of alternatives: covenants (multilateral planning agreements), persons as instruments (e.g.","appointing an environmental coordinator) and communication (i.e.","the exchange of information between the government and other parties on the basis of equality rather than unilateral information from the government).","Informal instruments play an important role in self-regulation.","Self-regulation has become increasingly popular in recent years, while direct regulation appears to be losing importance.","Yet no single control concept is preferable to any other one.","Direct regulation has the following advantages:","Because of the emphasis on legislation, carefulness is fairly certain.","Legal security: everyone has the same rights and duties.","If worst comes to worst, citizens or organizations may be forced to do or refrain from doing something.","Direct regulation does, however, have major drawbacks:","Enforcement requires a lot of supervision.","Because legislation has to be passed, the effects are not felt for a long time.","It is not designed for complex situations.","Legislation often prompts resistance or evasion, requiring more sanctions.","Indirect regulation has the following advantages:","It can often be done quickly.","It dovetails with the interests of individuals or organizations.","It provides the freedom to display deviating behaviour without being punished.","It requires less supervision (e.g.","random inspection by an accountant or inspector).","Yet there are also drawbacks to indirect regulation:","Costs can easily get out of hand: the more citizens or institutes behave in the desired manner, the more premiums will have to be paid.","Information as the only instrument to influence behaviour is hardly effective.","The size of the collective sector is increasing (to all outward appearances).","The result is not guaranteed and cannot be enforced.","Indirect regulation is based largely on the assumption that people act rationally and are driven by economic considerations.","Self-regulation, finally, has the following advantages:","The results obtained are not enforced, i.e.","more intrinsic (citizens and organizations themselves are convinced that something has to be done).","No compulsion, so less supervision is required.","It may be effective in segments of society that are relatively closed to government influence.","It requires less government interference and, consequently, fewer civil servants.","It fits in well with Dutch society, which is highly organized and has traditionally strong corporate tendencies.","Nevertheless, self-regulation also has its drawbacks and limitations:","It relies on a feeling of 'common good' or long-term individual interest in (groups of) citizens.","It denies the existence of minority groups or weaker groups in society.","It may cause negative external effects to shift to other groups than the ones involved in self-regulation (for example: employers and employees themselves may regulate matters, to the disadvantage of welfare recipients or pensioners).","It presupposes a high degree of organization with a fairly centralized decision-making structure (after all, the top of the organization must reach agreements with other parties or with the government).","In everyday reality, there are, of course, all kinds of combinations; in the case of self-regulation, for instance, it often comes in handy to use direct regulation as a threat.","Stick, carrot and sermon in internal steering","These three types of control concepts are derived from public administration, i.e.","external steering issues.","Yet they can also be employed for many internal steering issues.","The staff department of Personnel & Organization, for instance, can choose from three control concepts in steering its training policy:","Direct regulation: the personnel department approves training plans, allocates the available money and decides on individual applications for training, based on all kinds of (written or unwritten) rules.","Indirect regulation: the personnel department steers training policy by distributing the money available for training in a specific manner (based on input or output characteristics), by granting funds to certain courses (or purchasing these at cheap rates), or by providing information on courses.","Self-regulation: the personnel department unconditionally gives the training money to decentralized departments, but reaches (non-binding) agreements with management on the way it is spent (e.g.","special attention to courses for employees from ethnic minorities), and sets up a Training Centre (which makes expertise available on a facility basis).","It should be noted that certain types of steering are better suited to certain organizations than to others.","Taking Mintzberg's six basic configurations as a starting point, the following link can be made with steering:","In the (simple structure) entrepreneurial organization (coordination mechanism: direct supervision), direct regulation will be predominant, based on informal rules and 'do's and don'ts' determined by the management.","In the machine bureaucracy (coordination mechanism: standardization of the working process), direct regulation will be based on many written rules enforced by extensive staff departments.","In the professional bureaucracy (coordination by means of standardization of input or skills), indirect regulation can be used well, for it gives the top the possibility to steer decentralized units without limiting their autonomy too much.","In the division organization (coordination by output standardization), self-regulation can be used at divisional level, using appropriate instruments such as planning agreements, organization (facilitation) and communication.","In an ad-hocracy (coordination by mutual agreements), self-regulation is the most suitable option at the level of the individual employee, who works autonomously.","In an idealistic organization (coordination by standardization of norms and values), self-regulation is also the best option.","Incidentally, the distinction between external and internal steering will become more and more blurred in the years to come, as the government attempts to achieve steering on an equal basis with various parties.","This is all the more reason to apply the insights from public administration science to internal steering issues.","Read: management & leadership 5: External and internal steering of organizations: the stick, the carrot and the sermon","./en_read_management_leadership_5.htm","11,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[76]=new Array("OD TOOLKIT","Please select one of the following:","Manual: background, usage notes, contact addresses","Problems & referrals: a guide to solutions","Search engine: search on keywords","Reading section: all articles","Switch language: the OD Toolkit in Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian language","OD TOOLKIT","./en_main.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[77]=new Array("4.3.1: Some NGO's are based on the desire of its founders to be societal active.","As the society in itself develops, such NGO's run the risk to become detached from the community.","There has to be a connection to the needs of (a part of) the community.","The first step should be to connect or re-connect the ideas of the founders with those of the relevant parties (potential target groups, consumers, clients, service users etc.) within the community, in order to perform an common analysis of the needs.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of civil society.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Intermezzo 4.3.1","./en_im_4_3_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[78]=new Array("Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT OD TOOLKIT: Search page t","Please type your key word (or key phrase) below and click on the "Search" button.","OD TOOLKIT: Search page","./en_search.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[79]=new Array("Read: management & leadership 7: Power Based on the work of Mauk Mulder","Definition: to determine, direct or regulate to a certain degree the behaviour of others.","Features:","power is everywhere","it is a two sided process: the influence you have on somebody else is limited by the way the other lets you have this degree of influence and, of course, vice versa.","Somebody else can have as much power (influence) on your behaviour as you let him/her have.","Bases of power:","Power of position: having a certain position in the social system 'seduces' others to follow, to be susceptible to the wishes of others.","Obeying because one should obey.","Power of sanction: having the disposal of (positive and negative) sanctions: rewards and punishments in all sorts of forms (formal and informal, material and immaterial).","The susceptibility of the receiver determines the effectivity of the sanction.","Power of reference: someone who admires another person is likely to follow his or her habits, line of thinking, behaviour, language, expressions etc..","Happens mostly unconsciously (charisma, guru, idols).","Power of influence elsewhere: having influence at the top or at the base of the organization, or having connections with persons or institutes outside the organization can lead to an enhancement of the power position within the organization.","Power of expertise: being the expert (or the supposed expert) can be enough to be followed (even if the expertise only exists in the mind of the less powerful) follower.","Power of experience: being the one with a lot of experience in a certain field","Power to convince: the ability to convince others with arguments often in combination with reference and expertise power.","Power of victims: by being 'helpless' or accusing the other of being cruel/unfair not to do what you want influencing the other (some people are very sensitive to this form and cannot 'resist' it and often it is not recognized as 'power').","Power of identity: being rewarded or punished in a certain aspect of your being (you are a good mother, or you're not a real woman).","Power of social categories: power based on dominance in society: class, ethnicity, gender sex, health, age etc.","Read: management&leadership 7: Power","./en_read_management_leadership_7.htm","3,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[80]=new Array("Read: Management & leadership 8: Feminist leadership","Some people claim that feminist leadership and good leadership are synonym.","In a sense it is, as long as the beholder also claims that feminism, considered as a set of values is THE good set of values.","Others think that feminist leadership is a kind of contradiction in terms, feminism being contrary to power and feminist equality contrary to leadership itself.","On behalf of the subject we renounce both positions, and define feminist leadership as leadership congruent with feminist principles.","Leadership is commonly characterised by traits, skills or competences like passion and vision, the talent to relate and to commit, originality and courage, credibility, trust and empowerment.","Leaders are considered to be people who have an independent personality, a passion for the world and the society and for what has to be changed, and who are skilled to act accordingly.","Reading the recent literature on leadership these three components are frequently mentioned: skills:","Learning ability, dealing positively with criticism, curiosity, receptiveness or susceptibility","Empowerment, recruiting competent people, making use of diversity, creating conditions for empowerment, delegating","Cooperating, networking, oriented at stakeholders, connecting and attuning, not being defensive, oriented at internal cooperation norms and values","Guiding vision, a forceful own vison, being inspiring, capacity to conceptualise, transforming ideas into action","Open engagement, visible emotional involvement, passion and compassion, commitment with people, societal involvement","Being a moral authority, actively putting on morality, being recognised as a moral authority, applying moral standards personal characteristics","Locus of control, internal locus of control, self-knowledge, self consciousness, autonomy","Credibility, congruity, being trustworthy, authenticity","Emotional intelligence, able to handle own emotions, introspection, optimism, empathy","A lot of the recent literature describes these elements as desirable for leaders, but several empiric studies show that of these three categories only the middle one, the norms and values really discriminate between leaders and managers.","In other words: in many aspects good leaders are like good managers: in terms of their personality traits and in terms of skills.","But leaders, in comparison with managers, seem to be exceptionally gifted with an own value system, that impregnates everything they think, feel and do.","In these terms feminist leaders are like good managers if they have some of the above mentioned personality traits or skills, but they are really leaders if they have a strong and well developed set of (amongst others feminist) values, which colours their thought and actions.","Probably some discussion will exist on the question which these feminist values exactly are.","Just to start such a discussion we sum up some options:","Feminist leadership should be oriented to a different arrangement of the human order: re-distribution of power and re-distribution of responsibilities.","Fighting societal inequalities.","Changing economic and social structures, beginning with transformation of psychic structures.","Bridging personal freedom with collective freedom.","Aiming at cooperation instead of competition. ","In feminist leadership equality, mutuality and absence of sex role behaviour should be visible.","Feminist leadership should promote (or even rehabilitate) emotionality and the values of relationships.","Feminist leadership renounces external paraphernalia of power and their influence (read: management and leadership 7: power).","Read: management & leadership 8: Feminist leadership","./en_read_management_leadership_8.htm","4,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[81]=new Array("Read: organisations 1: Structure of organisations (Mintzberg) 1.","Definitions of 'organisation'","a purposeful collaboration (goal, plans, organising, operation, control and correction)","several people fulfilling several tasks leads to the necessity of a kind of transfer of will (who decides what) and a kind of coordination ( who is doing what)","division of activities;","determination of decision making procedures;","building communication channels.","One can discern the formal and the informal organisation, complementary to each other or undermining each other.","Simple formulated: an organisation exists because the objective of the organisation is pursued by several people together.","The combination 'several people and an objective' asks for division of tasks (horizontal or vertical division of tasks) and for agreements (coordination, transfer of will concerning the goal, or acting by order in a hierarchy).","The variation in both, division of tasks and mechanisms of coordination, leads to a variety of different forms of organisations.","For division of tasks below and for mechanisms of coordination see 2.","Division of labour","Vertical differentiation: in levels, on the base of costs reduction, leading to high and low, to hierarchy.","Horizontal differentiation: the formation of divisions or sections, functional compartments.","Internal differentiation: F-division, functional.","Division of labour according to the phases of the process or to the nature of the activities, grouped along the lines of similarity.","Organisational independency of sub processes.","(purchase, processing, sale)","Risk: disappearing coherence.","Necessity: collective coordination.","Internal specialisation: division of labour according to the goal of the activities or functions.","(purchasers, salesmen)","P-division, by products.","(shoes, stocking, underwear,)","G-division, by geographical place.(north and south department)","M-division by market segment or consumer group.(adults, children)","(Mintzberg adds: by time, by knowledge and skills, for example the night shift, the doctors and nurses.)","Advantages F-division:","Concentration of similar activities.","mechanising and acquisition of specialised equipment in behalf of the activities","high occupancy of people and machines","high skills and routine, high expertise and knowledge on sub processes, similarities in working attitude and language","Disadvantages F:","monotony, one-sidedness","low flexibility","problems of coordination by a fragmented production process","Advantages P-division:","The end-product has a central position, that is why heterogeneous activities are brought together in one section fast flow of products","quick problem solving because of the build-in direct coordination","short communication lines of communication","Disadvantages P:","high costs because of the need for more machines and means, giving up the benefit of the combination","low degree of functional expertise","Concluding: P: shorter delivery periods, higher reliability of delivery, higher degree of flexibility is opposed to sacrificing more means.","Organisational system","Line, staff, line organisation with staff departments.","*Line","Originates from the disposal of tasks which contain more and more executive elements.","Everyone has a chief or manager to whom one is related in a power structure.","Power of the line: ordering and controlling downwards, accountability upwards.","Following the vertical line:","Advantages:","clearness and simplicity","supervision and control from a -status- position;","coordinating with chief or manager, before executing the order","Disadvantages:","overburdening the vertical line (if all coordination goes that way);","over strained expectations of expertise of managers, or a very small span of control.","A solution could be to fit the horizontal line in a line organisation, preserving the hierarchical principal., for instance by institutionalise horizontal coordination on the same hierarchical level, with feedback to the next level: contact passerelle *Variations of the line Staff functions:","specialised knowledge on behalf of policy matters (economic investigation, market study, legal advice etc.) Staff departments:","specialised knowledge on behalf of the operational core (personnel department, administrative department, maintenance department, etc.)","Staff is advisor.","The efforts of the staff should be directed to get the advice accepted by the line.","Staff department performs a part of the execution.","Product of the staff is a coercive instruction, 'functional control'.","The unity of order is abolished.","The line says that something has to be done, the staff department how it has to be done.","'Entente' structure:","Co-ordination in the construction of the organisation (operating on the same level).","A board in which the members share the responsibilities (colleagues?), independency in individual areas of decision making, deliberation or consultation in areas of common decision making.","Matrix organisation:","direct cooperation between functionaries from diverse areas of expertise.","Project leader with operational authority.","Workers fall under the functional manager who stays responsible for the professional aspects.","Project organisation:","idem, but the project leader has operational and line authority over the workers.","*Centralisation and decentralisation","Where are which decisions made.","Who has got the authority to make which decisions.","For instance: urgent and local conditions demand a spread of the authority to make decisions: decentralisation.","The need for coordination and the existence of important decisions demand concentration of decision authority: centralisation.","*Task, authority and accountability","These three should always be inextricably bound up with each other.","Being charged with a particular task should include the authority to make decisions within that task and the duty to be accountable over that task.","Problems could arise if one of these three elements is lacking.","4.Organisational structures (Mintzberg)","Mintzberg discerns five mechanisms of coordination:","coordination by mutual adjustment: agreements in a informal consultation;","direct supervision: a person who gets the responsibility over the work of others, instructing them and controlling their activities;","standardisation of working processes: f.i.","instruction how to assemble a car;","standardisation of output: the result is fixed, not the way how to attain that result;","standardisation of skills: a description what should be the necessary training for the job (nursing).","One can often see a sequence of these five mechanisms of coordination with the grow of the organisation.","As the complexity is increasing and the degree of difficulty of the work is growing, mutual adjustment as the main coordination mechanism will turn on again.","Mintzberg describes six basic configurations, each of them characterised by the importance of one main coordination mechanism:","Mintzberg describes five main parts of the organisation:","Strategic Apex: full time top managers;","Operating Core: the basis of the organisation, where people do the basic work, the core business: making the products or delivering services (shop floor);","Middle Line: a hierarchy of authorities between apex and core (middle management);","Techno-structure: outside the line, often directed towards standardisation of the work (staff);","Support: indirect support of the operating core, of the standardised work.","Upon this base Mintzberg describes five configurations, characterised by the way in which one of the five parts of the organisation is having a key role and in which one of the five coordinating mechanisms is central.","Simple structure: based on direct supervision, the strategic apex has the key position.","Vertical and horizontal centralisation..","Machine bureaucracy: based on standardisation of working processes.","Techno-structure has the key position.","Limited horizontal decentralisation.","Professional organisation: based on standardisation of skills.","Operating core has key position.","Vertical and horizontal decentralisation.","Division organisation: based on standardisation of output.","Key role for the middle line.","Limited vertical decentralisation.","Ad-hocracy: based on mutual adjustment.","Key role for the support structure, sometimes together with operating core.","Selective decentralisation.","Later on Mintzberg added a sixth configuration:","The idealistic organization: based on standardization of norms and values.","The five configurations a bit more elaborated.","Simple structure:","Often a beginning organisation, young, small, no sophisticated techno structure, in a simple and dynamic context.","Strong power position of the manager.","Machine bureaucracy:","a clearly defined hierarchy;","procedures, rules for all thinkable situations concerning the work that has to be done;","exactly defined areas of competence;","'narrow' specialisations;","selection and promotion on the base of technical competence;","impersonal and abstract division of functions and of forming of functions.","Emphasis on standardisation of the work and narrow specialisms, high degree of division of labour.","Mostly low educated workers and a lot of middle managers (mass production)","Pathology:","trained incapacity, insufficient use of available knowledge and skills.","there is a risk that the means become the objectives in themselves.","Rules and regulations become a goal, without remembrance to their original service.","a risk of formalism, ritualism or exaggerated punctuality (negative connotation of the concept bureaucracy);","depersonalising the relationships by emphasising the formal relationships.","(Connotations: old, big, regulating, no IT technical system, inflexible, simple and stable context, external control, old fashioned) Professional organisation (also called professional bureaucracy):","Emphasis on standardisation of skills, directed to standardised delivery of services to clients.","Highly educated personnel with a lot of influence and authority with respect to their own work Independently working, few middle management, a lot of support for the professionals.","A complex and stable context, a not regulating, not very sophisticated but manageable techno structure.","Division organisation:","Standardisation of output.","Diversified markets (products and services).","The duplicates function as quasi autonomous units, without the necessity to coordinate with the other units.","It is exactly prescribed what has to be delegated to the divisions.","The coordinating mechanism is the output and this output will be thoroughly controlled.","The units will have the tendency to become a machine bureaucracy themselves.","(connotations: old, big, need for power with the middle managers, fashionable) Ad-hocracy:","Temporary collaborations, project organisation, creative solutions for only-once unique problems.","Sometimes placed outside the line, in order to prevent troubles in the ongoing production.","The ad-hocracy functions as ad hoc teams in a throw away organisation.","It demands a high ability to adjust of its workers..","Horizontal job specialisation.","Complex and dynamic context, young, sophisticated and often digitalised technical system.","Modern.","Sometimes it demands a high tolerance for ambiguity.","People who cannot stand that will have the tendency to fix things again in new rules and regulation.","Structure provokes the survival of the fittest.","Mintzberg: Structures in five.","Prentice Hall, 1983","Mintzberg: Mintzberg on management.","Free Press, NY, 1989.","Read: organisations 1: Structure of organisations (Mintzberg)","./en_read_organisations_1.htm","13","9 dec 2003");
Page[82]=new Array("Read: organisations 2: Some basic organisational requirements","Organisations should be organised in a clear and simple way, understood by all participants in the organisation.","The following elements should be present: 1.","A few clear 'systems':","the aims, policy and projects are clear (reviewed yearly)","the organisation of work is clear (who, what, when)","there is an internal personnel policy (recruitment, introduction, training)","there is clarity about finances (accounting, policy, report)","there is a communication system (main streams, specifics)","there is an evaluation system (of projects, internal process) 2.","Clear levels of responsibility:","A person who gets the responsibility to do a certain job:","should have sufficient delegated authority to decide things","and should be accountable (her work evaluated) regularly 3.","Clear decision-making structure","it is clear when and how general policy decisions are made","it is clear who has delegated responsibility","it is clear when/how evaluations/discussions are held","it is clear when/how new decisions are taken 4.	Legitimate leadership, or co-ordination of tasks","it is clear how responsibilities are delegated","the level of authority is clear","there are clear moments of evaluation of co-ordination/leadership","Read: organisations 2: Some basic organisational requirements","./en_read_organisations_2.htm","2","9 dec 2003");
Page[83]=new Array("Read: organisations 3: The learning organization","In many organizations, people learn at an individual level: the employee learns from own experiences and from colleagues and acquires ever more expertise.","But if the employee leaves the organization, it turns out that the organization itself has not learnt - it has only given opportunity to learn.","And, on top of that, that opportunity is usually quite limited.","If the structure of an organization is represented in simplified form, then three levels can be usually distinguished: the top management, the staff and the executors.","Often a non-learning organization is characterized by a fixed division of tasks between these three levels: the top managers take the decisions, the staff members do the thinking and the executors do the actual work.","In extreme situations, executors are even discouraged from thinking, for that is the job of the staff.","And taking decisions is the exclusive right of the top managers, even if they have insufficient knowledge of the execution.","In classic non-learning organizations, undermining habits will come into being as a result of this rigid division of tasks.","Executors forward an idea for a simplified procedure.","The staff rejects this and the top management gets involved.","Top management orders the staff to come up with an own simplified procedure.","When introduced it proves not effective.","The executors play the game.","They adhere to the new procedure and let things mess up.","An organization that does not learn will go to pieces in the end.","For it is necessary to anticipate new developments, to grow in terms of quality and to be innovative.","The talent available within the organization should be developed for such a learning process.","The learning organization","Attention is focussed on collective learning.","A learning organization is characterized by an innovative climate.","It deliberately pursues the policy of increasing its learning capacity continuously and at all levels, in order to optimize its effectivity.","Three impeding factors can be present within organizations: the division between the top and the basis, the division between thinkers and doers, and the division between the organization itself and the outside world.","These three impediments hinder open communication, which is a prerequisite for learning.","To create learning moments, the dividing lines between top and basis, between horizontal departments and between inside and outside worlds should be broken through.","Synergetic meetings, or meetings exceeding existing borders, create learning experiences.","Three learning levels are distinguished: 1.	Single-loop learning","Single-loop learning is aimed at changing the rules which apply within the organization.","A characteristic feature of single-loop learning is that the underlying theories, reasoning or assumptions themselves are not under discussion.","Solutions are at the level of better of the same.","So, particularly "how"-questions rather than "why"-questions are actually raised.","The learning takes place at the level of "being allowed/being obliged" (rules).","2.	Double-loop learning","Double-loop learning is not only directed to the rules, but the underlying insights are also dealt with.","This form of learning is not only about changing rules, but also about changing insights.","So, it concerns learning at insight level, involving "why"-questions.","Conflicts and controversies between departments and individuals are signs that double-loop learning would be necessary.","The major reason for problems not being solved by double-loop thinking is the avoidance of discussion about the roots of problems.","It is a kind of flight, sometimes into doing nothing at all, sometimes into a bogus solution of which everyone knows that it won't work.","Signals of the necessity of double-loop learning are:","External signals make it clear that adjustment of rules does not help.","Clients remain unsatisfied.","Complaints keep on being made.","Internal signals of frictions and collective lack of clarity.","The reason for rules is no longer understood.","3.	Triple-loop learning","If principles on which the organization is based come under discussion triple-loop learning may be indicated.","The issue then is what kind of organization (or department within an organization) one wishes to be.","Triple loop learning is about "to what purpose"-questions, about developing new principles with which the organization can go over to a following phase in its development.","A changing organization can not do without learning at all three levels.","Characteristics of a learning organization","In a learning organization, a combination of unlearning and learning is involved, with the following characteristics:","collective learning, which often means: different from what people were used to within the organization;","a compulsory learning process: everybody has to take part;","a learning process without teachers;","not only a learning but also an unlearning process.","This leads to uncertainty, as many things which used to be obvious are now brought up for discussion.","The key word of the learning organization is "development".","Literature mentions a number of characteristics of the learning organization: Strategy	Continuous development","mission as course-setter","short-range and medium-range","rational and intuitive","active and proactive","various points of focus Structure	Organic networks","loosely linked units and teams around product/market combinations","decentralization","mixing of thinkers (staff) and doers (line)","coordination through consultation Culture	Task culture","flexible","solution-directed","creative Systems	Supporting","information for reflection "on the system"","information for action "in the system"","handling complexity","Read: organisations 3: The learning organization","./en_read_organisations_3.htm","6,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[84]=new Array("Read: organisations 4: Evaluating and monitoring","Managers, project leaders and funders or subsidizers want to know whether their investments and efforts yield the desired results, and if the work is done appropriately and efficiently.","Therefore, efforts and results should be made visible and measurable.","Some projects have aims that can be measured accurately.","For instance, 30% of the people in the political bodies chosen are women.","With other projects, more indicators are necessary in order to measure whether their aims have been achieved.","For example: public safety.","An indicator can be: the number of reported criminal offences has fallen by 20% within a year.","This, however, could also be caused by the fact that women find it increasingly scary to walk in the dark on their own, and therefore decide to stay at home.","So, more indicators are needed to measure public safety.","For example: investigate what areas in a certain town women experience as unsafe, and improve these areas (lights, fewer bushes, more police patrolling).","An additional indicator will be the extent to which women feel safer after a period of time.","This can be investigated by interviewing local women from time to time.","There are also projects and policies which do not clearly formulate their ultimate goal, but rather a direction.","In these cases it is not possible to formulate the ultimate goal.","A project, for instance, in which different organisations co-operate (school, doctor, police) aims to detect situations in which children are not doing well at an early stage.","All manner of things could be the matter with a child: bad school results, illness, or maybe it is always alone or on the street.","It depends on the situation whether the project's partners decide to work together or take action separately.","In other words, the partners' aims are not formulated in detail, but the direction of their co-operation is clearly defined.","It would be possible, though, to look, after some time, at what kind of problems they come across, and what kinds of co-operation appear to work well.","These two aims, looking at the kind of problems that occur and how the partners co-operate, can be evaluated.","Different projects are concerned with different things.","When different parties work together, the parties will have both shared and individual interests; in this case different evaluations will be desirable.","For example: three organisations co-operate in order to set up a public centre for women.","In addition to this shared concern, each organisation has its own interests: survival through co-operation, establishing the surplus value of multi-cultural co-operation; expanding its own sphere of influence.","In some cases, those directly involved in a project and its financiers will want different kinds of evaluation.","For example: a local council wishes to encourage more girls to choose technical careers.","At the same time, it wants to loosen its involvement in the execution of such kind of policy plans.","Therefore, a contract is drawn up with a number of schools and youth organisations in which the latter receive money to achieve the council's aims.","The council does not become involved in how they do this; it is only interested in the result, not in the method applied.","To the schools and youth centres, the way in which the aims are achieved will be an important point of evaluation as well.","Different situations will require different methods of evaluation.","Below, we will explain a few concepts; then we will discuss the evaluation methods.","We need to make all kinds of choices with regard to the method of evaluation.","A few concepts:","evaluating means collecting data about the process or product and attributing a certain value to these data.","the moment of evaluation: ex-ante evaluation: before a project or activity begins; formative evaluation: during the project; ex-post or summative evaluation: after the project has finished.","the basis for the evaluation: evaluation on the basis of a plan, or the process, or the product.","an assessment is made of the input, the output or the outcome.","The input is what is invested, the output is the immediate result (for instance the number of participants at a conference); the outcome, or impact, refers to the continued effect (for instance the way in which the participants at a conference will use the information at a later stage).","a one-off or permanent evaluation.","By monitoring we mean permanent control.","Monitoring can relate to a project with definite boundaries, or developments surrounding the project or organisation.","(An example based on a health information project: the information itself can be measured continually, but it is also possible to monitor how certain developments in society have an influence on those who receive the information).","Evaluation methods that are used often:","the expenses-profits analysis: all the efforts and results are converted into money and balanced against each other.","For example: this festival costs x, and will yield y in admission fees.","the costs-effects analysis: the expenses of a certain approach are expressed in money, and the profits are expressed both in money and in other effects.","For instance: the percentage of girls that register for technical subjects, or the number of complaints coming in about unsafe streets.","The costs/effects balance of one approach is then compared with the costs/effects balance of other approaches.","the goals achievement matrix: the measures are tested on the basis of the contribution they make to larger goals.","For example: this measure's effect on safety is x, while another measure has y effect.","the multi-criteria analysis: the evaluation is based on a combination of criteria.","For example: increased safety is measured on the basis of fewer complaints from women, an increased sense of safety, and a larger number of women who go out.","effect reports: before a project begins, the project's or policy's effect on, for instance, the environment or the position of women is measured.","New developments","These methods are used fairly regularly.","It is characteristic, that while many projects are tested for certain criteria when they begin, for the duration of the projects, or even afterwards, hardly any efforts are made to find out whether they have achieved the required results.","Today other evaluation methods, which are linked more closely to modern developments and demands, are used increasingly.","A few important developments include:","the need for permanent forms of evaluation, rather than a one-off evaluation beforehand or afterwards, has increased; those involved want to know about progress and results while the project is going on as well.","The most important advantage of this is the option to learn from mistakes.","It is possible to react, and maybe adjust, at an earlier stage.","the relations between financing and receiving party are changing in many places.","The subsidized party is no longer an object that only needs to be evaluated and given direction.","We now see a shared interest and emancipated 'receivers' who take part in the evaluation themselves as well.","another party, that of the policy's or project's target group, is emancipating as well.","A customer-oriented perspective and the recognition of the necessity of having policy with a broad basis will lead to a more participatory approach of projects/policies and their evaluation.","after all the emphasis there has been on quantitative data, there is now a move towards more interest in qualitative data.","there is more recognition now for the multiformity of interests and goals of the different parties.","The equality of parties means that in some projects different parties can pursue their own secondary goals, and that the existence of different goals in one project can and should be clarified to all the parties involved.","Evaluation methods which fit in with these developments include:","market research with the help of citizen panels or focus groups; it is investigated whether the customers or target groups need a certain measure or under what circumstances they could make use of a specific service.","In this kind of investigation the interests and needs of the customers take a central place instead of, or in addition to, for instance, the government's goals.","the realization test: it is investigated beforehand whether a certain (policy) plan can actually be realized.","This is done, for instance, by investigating whether the plan would find a lot of support among its future users.","the so-called fourth generation evaluation method: evaluation aims are determined together with all those who are involved; the evaluation itself, which is not a one-off occasion but a continual process, is also carried out with all those who are involved.","The evaluator will act as the mediator between the different parties.","He/she will negotiate about claims, concerns and issues (claims: what all the parties agree should be the results; concerns: business that still needs to be worked out; issues: points about which the different parties disagree because they mean a profit for one party and a loss for the other).","Indicators","With all these evaluation methods it is necessary to determine indicators in order to measure the results.","With the more modern evaluation methods, the setting up of these indicators is done by (the representatives of) all those involved.","A good indicator will comply with the following criteria:","the availability of data: is it possible to collect the intended data? (eg data about happiness is much more difficult to collect than data about income and health).","can the indicator be influenced? (eg you can hardly influence the weather) and: can the parties involved affect it? (eg some persons/organisations have an influence on the quality of drinking water, while others have not).","can it be compared with a certain norm? (eg the position of women in other countries, or during the last decade, or in other organisations).","does the indicator say anything about the broad spectrum of input, process, output and outcome?","To sum up, evaluating is a participatory, on-going, educational and dynamic process.","Read: organisations 4: Evaluating and monitoring","./en_read_organisations_4.htm","11","9 dec 2003");
Page[85]=new Array("Read: organisations 5: Summary of From pioneering towards a professional organisation 1.Pioneer phase: the first years","there is a clear ideal, one goal and one strategy,","friendship, common values and culture, same way of doing things,","often an initiator, informal leader of a strong personality,","often strong separation from 'mainstream' ('we are different'), pride in that,","decision-making in the group by consensus without clear procedures,","assignment of duties based on individual wishes (and on the assumption that everybody can do everything), not on qualification.","Growing in size, projects, ideas: after some years","more (and sometimes different) goals and strategies are discovered","new people arrive, with different ideas and ways of doing things","more people with leadership qualities emerge or arrive","more co-operation with other groups/organisations is possible","sometimes more means (money, space, time) become available.","different groups/projects emerge, different types of decision-making.","Developing need for clarity in goals, strategies, organisational systems","reconsideration of goals, strategies and policies is necessary","central values and culture of the organisation needs attention/care/direction","clarity about division of responsibilities/leadership is needed","relationships with outside organisations need to be defined (strategies!!)","decisions about division of money, time, space etc.","are necessary","a need for systems of communication, running meetings, decision making, organisation of the work, ways of planning and evaluation work etc.","discussion about the right quality of the work and learning capacity of the organisation and the individuals within it are needed.","Making the choice: what kind of organisation do we want to be, and why?","historical or cultural reasons or reasons of size","reasons related to the kind of people inside","reasons related to the nature of the work or the type of products","reasons related to the kind of relationship with the outside world","NGO's often experience a critical phase with internal tension when they are somewhere between the pioneer and more professional stages because performance of the organisation and it's internal organisation do not match with what is expected from insiders and sometimes from outsiders as well.","Therefore this analysis- where are we - should be made.","Read: organisations 5: Summary of From pioneering towards a professional organisation","./en_read_organisations_5.htm","3,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[86]=new Array("Read: organisations 7: Fundraising","At times when donors withdraw and other sources of income are as yet not available, organisations - struggling for survival- embrace the idea of fundraising.","Some topics should be discussed and some questions should be answered before actually throwing one self in fundraising activities:","is being funded self-evident?","reasons to be funded","reasons not to be funded","potential funders and their characteristics","what does a NGO need for successful fundraising? Is being funded self-evident?","The natural birth of a NGO (look at: dynamics 1: Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia) is the action group of volunteers, indignant about a specific societal problem.","The members are inspired by ideals, work hard and sometimes achieve success.","Those groups that have success will expand their activities and attract more and sometimes other people who want to join in.","The fist success is often breaking the silence around the problem by being able to put the topic at the public and political agenda..","Public recognition of the work of the group is one of the first results.","In a more or less normal life cycle of a NGO this is the moment that being subsidised becomes a topic within the group.","The government or the local authorities might be willing to subsidise housing, or an office, or maybe one paid staff coordinator.","In societies where action groups are born in conflicts or war, trying to alleviate the suffering of refugees or sexual violated women, subsidy is often available at a very early moment.","International aid organisations recognise that help is desperately needed and groups who can help receive funds.","Such groups are rapidly transformed into NGO's, choosing a legal form apt for receiving money.","These circumstances lead to the fact that being subsidised is considered normal.","When the conflict cools down foreign donors usually withdraw.","Although a lot of problems are still to be solved.","And leaving behind the young NGO's without the money they got used to.","The withdrawal of relatively abundant grants makes them vulnerable and defenceless.","Most of these groups or organisations have hardly known a period of growing and maturing without any money at all.","What to do without money.","How to survive? Reasons to be funded","Coming from a situation in which no money was available, funding opens the perspective to a lot of desiderata:","basics as an office, housing, material, machines, the possibility to consult experts, putting out some work to contract like book keeping.","it may give the organisation some sustainability and it makes it possible to direct all the energy to the goals themselves.","being subsidised is a form of recognition and may legitimate the organisation in the eyes of other parties,","the products may be sold at lower prices and are thus within the reach of more people..","Other reasons to welcome subsidy may be the conviction that","paid jobs for women help their economic independence and","may heighten their societal influence","For organisations confronted with withdrawal of their sources of income, the question if subsidy will be found is a matter of keeping or losing paid jobs, keeping or losing housing or lodging, and keeping or losing activities that cost money.","Reasons not to be funded","Being funded means being accountable, writing reports, investing time and energy in funding and in accountability.","Being funded means control, rules, being encapsulated.","Donors paying money to critical groups can be a way to control them.","Being funded may mean at the long run an infringement of the pioneer mentality, of the organisational culture that encourages people to spend their unbridled energy, to give their best at impossible moments.","Being subsidised is losing the unique position of highhandedness.","Being subsidised means a transition to another organisational identity, from action group to a professionalising NGO, becoming part of the mainstream.","Being funded should require a real decision, considering arguments related to the advantages of freedom and to the advantages of more comfortable possibilities.","Potential funders and their characteristics","A rough distinction can be made between different subsidising funders:","supra national funders like the European Community","foreign developmental donor organisations like Oxfam, Novib","the national government or local governing bodies","big funds like Ford, van Leer, Rockefeller, originally related to trade and industry","organisations coming from trade and industry","private funds (civic organisations, unions, churches, professional associations etc.)","private persons","In all cases the key question is: how do we pay for being funded.","The government or local authorities.","In countries in which civil society is not yet a broadly accepted and appraised field of activities, the government will not be used to spend money on organisations that are critically towards governmental policies and try to enforce good governance.","NGO's will rather be considered as adversaries than as logical partners in societal development.","In the process of transition to democracy and the development of civil society government may gradually become more friendly towards NGO's but still suspicious towards their political angle.","The most probable form of subsidy is a small amount of money, equally distributed to all kinds of players in the civil society.","NGDO's, oriented towards developmental goals, will have the same status as NGO's with socialising goals.","If NG(D)O's nevertheless want governmental funding, they should be careful about conditions.","Governmental agencies work within a framework of rules that is not always easy compatible to that of a NGO.","The kind of control and the amount of paperwork that accompanies government funding could well ruin the appetite for subsidies.","Trade or industry.","Some big multinationals have funds with an autonomous board (the above mentioned funds like Ford and Rockefeller).","They subsidise projects that fit in their priorities and meet their quality standards.","There is no connection to the business whatsoever.","Great!","But other companies from trade and industry who are willing to fund an organisation shall make demands in return.","The least is use of the work of the NGO for public relations purposes.","The effect upon the public image of the organisation of such a connection should be a matter of consideration. ","Private funds.","Some of them are big, providing big funds, the smaller ones usually grant for limited projects, with limited amounts of money, for a limited period.","Some of them provide money for projects and overhead, a lot prefer to fund activities, no overhead.","Each fund has its own criteria and regulations.","If the NGO can find funds with related goals, funding is an attractive possibility for both parties.","Private persons.","Worldwide the private donors form together a pyramid:","10 % of them raise 60% of the proceeds, 20 % raise 20% and 70 % of the private donors raise  20%  of the total sum.","This pyramid means that some big donations are needed in order to reach a reasonable total sum.","Private donors are a very good source of funding, in each and every country.","Finding the apt groups is the key activity, which can be very time consuming.","People want to give because they believe in certain goals, because of their societal responsibility, because they know someone in the organisation.","Sometimes they give true to tradition, they give because giving causes feeling good, because they want to belong to other people and because they are asked to do so.","Raising funds from private persons should be based on the needs of the people who may give.","What does a NGO need for successful fundraising?","Making intelligent conditions and developing the right attitude, these are the two major necessities for successful fundraising.","Fundraising should only be done under the following conditions:","no risk that the quality of the products or services is reduced","no risk of reduced accessibility because of funding","no risk of incompatible influence of donors on the policies of the NGO","no risk of harm to the credibility of the NGO","a balance between time, money and human energy to get funded and the funds themselves.","the NGO should be able to handle fundraising and ready to be transparent and accountable","Fundraising demands a specific attitude towards money and towards asking money.","Fundraising is offering others the opportunity to invest in matters that make life worthwhile.","Fundraising is investing in a relationship with whom are asked to give and understanding why they might give.","The representatives of the organisation should transfer the feeling that funding is a chance to join in the work of the organisation, with money.","For whom is interested to read more about funding: www.grassrootsfundraising.org","Kim Klein: Fundraising for social change.","Jossey Bass, NY, 2000.","Henry A.","Rosso: Achieving excellence in fundraising.","Jossey Bass, NY, 1991.","Read: organisations 7: Fundraising","./en_read_organisations_7.htm","10","9 dec 2003");
Page[87]=new Array("1.3.4.1: Time is a necessary factor in enriching one's vision.","Developing a vison always detracts something from the original one.","That can be a difficult process.","Too big an identification with the original vision creates a defence against change.","But if the organisation continues to dinning in the old ideological faith it will be considered by an increasing number of people as only one aspect of the truth.","Ultimately people will turn away form organisations they think are one-sided.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","And Read: management & leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Intermezzo 1.3.4.1","./en_im_1_3_4_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[88]=new Array("1.7.1.1: The change of attitude of clients sometimes reflects the changing phase of the organisation itself.","Clients who know the volunteer character of the organisation may expect a personal relationship, while clients of a professional organisation will act according their expectation of a more objective relationship.","If the satisfaction of the work is related to the type of relationship, such a change may harm the common level of content of the workers.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Look at problem 8: expertise?","Intermezzo 1.7.1.1","./en_im_1_7_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[89]=new Array("Look at intermezzo:","1.5.1.1: Attention! Opposition of the workers against the leaders, or discontent of the leaders regarding the workers may hide another problem.","Leaders who notice changing demands of the outside world with the performance of the organisation, may take their frustration out on the workers.","Or inverse: workers who are discontent, who feel incompetent or who are traumatised, may take their frustration out on the management or the leaders.","Try to sort out what are the causes of the tension in the relationship.","Depending on the main cause:","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene, or solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Or look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read: management & leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Intermezzo 1.5.1.1","./en_im_1_5_1_1.htm","1,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[90]=new Array("The main problem of our organisation has to do with:","Unpleasant atmosphere","Output","Turnover of personnel","Goals","Resilience","Money","Power","Expertise","Agreements","10.","External relationships.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.","We suffer from an unpleasant atmosphere.","What is bothering most?","1.1.","Everybody is always tired or exhausted.","1.2.","Money is often the subject of quarrels and fights.","1.3.","There are constantly conflicts around questions like who is in charge, who is controlling whom.","1.4.","The spirit has gone, enthusiasm is waning.","1.5.","Two groups are violently opposing each other.","1.6.","We have serious disagreements about what our organisation should do.","1.7.","The atmosphere is influenced by the changing attitude of the population of clients.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.1.","Everybody is always tired or exhausted.","1.1.1.","The caseload is high, we just do not have enough people to do the work.","Look at intermezzo: 1.1.2.","The caseload is high and we lack a good system of assignment of duties.","Look at intermezzo: 1.1.3.","The problem is too big to be handled with our (wo)manpower.","Look at problem 4.1.: ambitious goals.","1.1.4.","There is no time left for reflection; we run and run; we do not learn anymore; we feel powerless facing the complexity of the problems.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.2.","Money is often the subject of quarrels and fights.","1.2.1.","The donor causes a shortage of budget.","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","1.2.2.","People think they earn too little, especially compared with what representatives of the donor get by helping us.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","1.2.3.","Cheating is suspected.","Money is used for things it was not meant for.","Look at intermezzo: 1.2.4.","A conflict exists between those who do their best to realise the goals of the organisation and those who work primarily to earn some money.","Look at intermezzo: 1.2.5.","You cannot be sure anymore who is joining the organisation, if people are accepted who work only for money.","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Read communication 1: internal communication.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.3.","There are constantly conflicts around questions like  who is in charge and who is controlling whom.","1.3.1.","It is not clear who decides what.","Anyone seems to be in charge of anything.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Look at solution 7: splitting up.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read management & organisation 7: power.","1.3.2.","We have problems to combine our preference for a horizontal structure with taking decisions.","No one has a good overview.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene, and at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","1.3.3.","Apparently we function as a democracy, but the early activists dominate all decisions.","Look at intermezzo: 1.3.4.","The tensions are always about who is morally right, and who has preserved the purist ideology.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.4.  The spirit has gone, enthusiasm is waning.","1.4.1.","Some are disappointed in what we have achieved.","Look at problem 4: goals.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","1.4.2.","Everybody is tired and exhausted.","Look at problem 1.1.","1.4.3.","The donor forces us in setting priorities which are originally not our own.","Look at dynamics: influence of the donor.","1.4.4.","Staff members are no longer ideologically motivated but only financially.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.5.","Two groups are violently opposing each other.","1.5.1.","The two groups are: the leaders versus the rest of the staff.","Look at intermezzo: 1.5.2.","The two groups can be described along ethnic lines.","Look at dynamic 4: dealing with differences.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","1.5.3.","The two groups are: the founders of the organisation versus those who entered later on.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","And read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","1.5.4.","The two groups are the ideological activists and those who are primarily working for an income.","Look at intermezzo: 1.5.5.","The one group is composed of friends of one of the leaders, the other group consists of friends of the other leader.","Look at dynamic 4: dealing with differences.","And look at problem 7: power.","Read management&leadership 1:some aspects of management or leadership.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.6.","We have serious disagreements about what our organisation should do.","1.6.1.","The disagreements are mostly concerning our goals.","Look at intermezzo: 1.6.2.","The disagreements have to do with the way we are realising our goals.","Look at problem 4: goals.","Read change 4: strategic positioning, or action 1: strategy, and read organisations 6: fan of mainstreaming.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","1.6.3.","Differences in views are no longer appreciated.","They do not lead anymore to fruitful discussions but are smothered up in the struggle for power.","Look at problem 7: power.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 1.7.","The atmosphere is influenced by the changing attitude of the population of clients.","1.7.1.","The clients nowadays make other demands.","Look at intermezzo.","1.7.2.","The clients are less grateful than in former days.","Look at intermezzo.","1.7.3.","The complexity of the problems of clients leads to discontent of the workers, because of the lack of proportional growth of their competence.","Look at intermezzo.","1.7.4.","The complexity of the problems causes feelings of hopelessness.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","1.7.5.","The clients nowadays are more assertive and sometimes aggressive.","Look at intermezzo.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.","Output is our main problem.","What is bothering most?","2.1.","We cannot handle the huge flow of clients who need our help.","2.2.","We suffer from a shortage of financial means.","2.3.","There is a decrease in activities.","2.4.","There are no new activities nor plans.","2.5.","The number of clients/consumers/target groups is decreasing.","2.6.","Decisions are no longer taken.","2.7.","The caseload is too low.","2.8.","In the meantime strong competitors came up.","2.9.","The quality of our output is arguable.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.1.","We cannot handle the huge flow of clients who need our help.","2.1.1.","  The caseload is high, we just do not have enough people to do the work.","Look at intermezzo: 2.1.2.","The caseload is high and we lack a good system of assignment of duties.","Look at intermezzo: 2.1.3.","The problem is too big to be handled with our (wo)manpower.","Look at problem 4.1: ambitious goals.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","2.1.4.","There is no time left for reflection; we run and run; we do not learn anymore; we feel powerless facing the complexity of the problems.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.2.","We suffer from a shortage of financial means.","2.2.1.","The donor has reduced our budget or the donor has withdrawn.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at problem 6: money.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","2.2.2.","The problem is too big to be handled with our (wo)manpower or our financial means.","Look at problem 4.1.: ambitious goals.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","2.2.3.","The government is not willing to subsidise our activities.","Look at problem 6.1.","2.2.4.","We do not succeed in letting the clients pay for our services.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.3.","There is a decrease in activities.","2.3.1.  The necessity to raise funds has taken all our energy to the degree that our output has been damaged.","Look at problem: 6.1.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","2.3.2.","We are still working hard but it seems that in one way or another we produce less.","2.3.2.1.","We seem to keep ourselves busy one with another.","Look at intermezzo: 2.3.2.2.","There is just not enough work, but we keep it collectively secret.","Look at intermezzo: 2.3.2.3.","We seem to be a depressed organisation.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","2.3.3.","We accomplished what was on the stocks.","New activities are not (yet) demanded for or have not started yet.","Look at problem 2.5: declining target groups.","2.3.4.","Some of us are very busy, others have too little to do.","Look at problem 1.1.2.","2.3.5.","All our energy is consumed by internal consultation, discussion or policy meetings.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.4.","There are no new activities nor plans.","2.4.1.","There is no budget for new activities or plans.","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","2.4.2.","The actual work that has to be done is so extensive that we had to postpone deliberations on future activities.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","2.4.3.","We run and run and have no time nor energy for plans for the future.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","2.4.4.","Honestly: we do not have enough work.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.5.","The number of clients/consumers/target groups is decreasing.","2.5.1.","The problem, that led to the foundation of our organisation no longer exists to that extent.","Look at intermezzo: 2.5.2.","Maybe we no longer offer what our consumers expect.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation mission.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","2.5.3.","Peer organisations (competitors) do better.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","2.5.4.","Governmental organisations or profit organisations offer more or less the same services or products nowadays.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.6.","Decisions are no longer taken.","2.6.1.","We run and run, we are tired and we have no time for reflection or decisions.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","2.6.2.","Our horizontal structure is hindering our decision making power.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","2.6.3.","We are caught in the problem of power, no one permits the other to be decisive.","Look at problem 7: power.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.7.","The caseload is too low.","2.7.1.","We are still working hard but it seems that in one way or another we produce less.","2.7.1.1.","We seem to keep ourselves busy one with another.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","2.7.1.2.","There is just not enough work, but we keep it collectively a secret.","Look at intermezzo: 2.7.1.3.","We seem to be a depressed organisation.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","2.7.2.","The number of clients/target groups/ consumers is decreasing.","Look at problem 2.5.","2.7.3 All our energy is consumed by internal consultation, discussion or policy meetings.","Look at intermezzo.","2.7.4.","Honestly, we do not have enough work.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.8.","In the meantime strong competitors came up.","2.8.1.","We consider them as peer NGO's.","They serve the same limited population and sometimes they do better than we do.","Look at intermezzo: 2.8.2.","Governmental organisations or profit organisations offer more or less the same services or products nowadays.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 2.9.","The quality of our output is arguable.","2.9.1.","We work with volunteers who are not professionals.","Look at intermezzo: 2.9.2.","We still do what we did several years ago.","Look at intermezzo: 2.9.3.","Competitors meanwhile do better.","Look at problem: 2.8.","2.9.4.","We cannot afford to contract expensive experts.","Look at problem 6.1.2.","2.9.5.","Clients became more sophisticated, they demand better expertise.","Look at intermezzo: 2.9.6.","A right attitude is more important than a right formal education.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.","Composition of the organisation: turnover in personnel, staff or leaders.","What is bothering most?","3.1.","Too many people leave the organisation.","3.2.","The best people are leaving.","3.3.","Too few new people join the organisation.","3.4.","New people are professionals, no activists.","3.5.","Professionals are leaving, early activists stay.","3.6.","A process of splitting up the organisation in two or more parts is going on.","3.7.","The leader is leaving.","3.8.","A big number of the workers are casual project members.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.1.","Too many people leave the organisation.","3.1.1.","People leave because shortage of budget causes problems of payment.","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","3.1.2.","People leave because they are dissatisfied with the possibilities they get.","Look at intermezzo: 3.1.3.","People leave because of the atmosphere.","Look at problem 1: unpleasant atmosphere.","3.1.4.","People leave because they feel no longer inspired by the goals of the organisation.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.2.","The best people are leaving.","3.2.1.","They leave because of the necessity to earn more money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","3.2.2.","They leave because elsewhere they get more possibilities.","Look at problem 3.1.2.","3.2.3.","They leave because of the atmosphere.","Look at problem 1: bad atmosphere.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.3.","Too few new people join the organisation.","3.3.1.","The feminist goals are no longer attractive to young motivated women.","Look at problem 4.10: goals (not inspiring any more).","3.3.2.","Young professionals nowadays want to earn a lot of money we cannot pay.","Look at problem 6: money.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","3.3.3.","The nucleus of the early activists permits only a minimum of own responsibility to newcomers.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","And Read: management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership and read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","3.3.4.","There are other and maybe more attractive alternatives for young women to express their involvement in societal change.","Look at intermezzo: 3.3.5.","Our organisation has no attractive image.","Read communication 2: participation and public support and communication 3: research and public support.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.4.","New people are professionals, no activists.","3.4.1.","The feminist goals are no longer attractive to young motivated women.","Look at intermezzo: 3.4.2.","It is hard to demand ideological involvement when we are just looking for people who can do the job.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","3.4.3.","In order to reach our goals and to survive as an organisation we only need people with a strong ideology.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","3.4.4.","We need to have a variety of people, amongst whom a certain number of ideologically motivated women.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.5.","Professionals are leaving, early activists stay.","3.5.1.","If necessary we can do without them.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","3.5.2.","We need professionals to get the job done.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.6.","A process of splitting up the organisation in two or more parts is going on.","3.6.1.","This division is a rational choice, but the parts have to cooperate.","Look at solution 9: cooperation.","Look at solution 7: splitting the organisation.","3.6.2.","The division is a consequence of a severe conflict.","Look at problem 1: bad atmosphere.","Look at dynamic 4: dealing with differences.","And look at solution 7: splitting the organisation.","3.6.3.","The division is a consequence of the desire of one or more members to be an entrepreneur themselves.","Look at solution 7: splitting the organisation.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.7.","The leader is leaving.","3.7.1.","The leader is leaving or left, without hard feelings, but the organisation does not know how to go on.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","3.7.2.","The leader is leaving or left, accusing the others of betraying ideology.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Read management&leadership 1: some aspects of leadership.","Read management&leadership 2: differences between management and leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","3.7.3.","One of the leaders is leaving or left because of a serious conflict with another leader.","Look at dynamic 4: dealing with differences.","Read management&leadership 1: some aspects of leadership.","Read management&leadership 2: differences between management and leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","3.7.4.","The leader is considering to leave, because things are not going her way.","Look at problem 7: power.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Read management&leadership 1: some aspects of leadership.","Read management&leadership 2: differences between management and leadership.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 3.8.","A big number of the workers are casual project members.","3.8.1.","We had to contract so many temporary help because the donor wanted to invest a lot of money to alleviate the problem.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","3.8.2.","How to involve all those temporary workers in the goals and key values of the organisation?","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.","Goals of the organisation.","What is bothering most?","4.1.","The goals of our organisation are too ambitious.","4.2.","The goals of our organisation are too general or not clear.","4.3.","The goals of our organisation are not related to societal injustice or shortcomings in the community.","4.4.","The goals of our organisation are no longer unique.","4.5.","The goals of our organisation are directed to a mixture of achievements: realising external objectives and satisfying personal needs.","4.6.","The goals of our organisation lack a political aim.","4.7.","The goals of our organisation are too rigid.","4.8.","The goals of our organisation are not commonly shared, they are in fact dictated by a few people.","4.9.","The donor is forcing us to change the goals of our organisation.","4.10.","The goals are not inspiring any more.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.1.","The goals of our organisation are too ambitious.","4.1.1.","If we take our goals seriously we should alleviate almost all the misery of the world.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene (chapter goals).","4.1.2.","The problems are so huge and our goals so ambitious, we only can be disappointed about the result of our efforts.","Look at intermezzo: 4.1.3.","We complain regularly of the problems we try to handle being too complex.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.2.","The goals of our organisation are too general or are not clear.","4.2.1.","The goals of our organisation do not give enough direction to our activities.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene (chapter goals).","4.2.2.","The goals of our organisation do not differentiate between the need for political or humanitarian activities.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read civil society 3: NGO's and their contributions to the development of civil society.","4.2.3.","The goals of our organisation are too divers.","We do not manage to choose our priorities.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.3.","The goals of our organisation are not related to societal injustice or shortcomings in the community.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.4.","The goals of our organisation are no longer unique.","4.4.1.","Other NGO's have the same goals as we have.","Look at intermezzo: 4.4.2.","The goals of our organisation cover too much what other organisations (GO's for example) meanwhile are doing.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.5.","The goals of our organisation are directed to a mixture of achievements: realising external objectives and satisfying personal needs.","4.5.1.","We are not clear about the amount of energy we want to spend on each of the components of the goals.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","4.5.2.","The organisation seems to be attractive to people who mainly look for chances to satisfy their own needs (socialising, meeting companions in distress, coming out of the closet etc.).","Look at intermezzo: 4.5.3.","It is unclear if satisfying personal needs is acceptable next to working on external societal goals.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.6.","The goals of our organisation lack a political aim.","4.6.1.","The goals of our organisation are only dealing with humanitarian topics.","Look at intermezzo: 4.6.2.","If  the goals of our organisation would be realised, no major changes in society are involved.","Look at intermezzo: 4.6.3.","The so-called necessity of having a political aim is always the subject of internal discussion and controversies.","Look at intermezzo: 4.6.4.","Being a NGO we cannot be openly political because it would not be accepted in our community.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","4.6.5.","We cannot accept funding from our government while at the same time politically fighting them.","Look at problem 6.4.","Being funded and the freedom of action.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","4.6.6.","We have different ideas about our goals, but a certain appreciation of differences exists no longer.","We do not have fruitful discussions anymore.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.7.","The goals of7our organisation are too rigid.","4.7.1.","Some of us think that the goals of our organisation still stick to the dominant ideas and political analysis of the nineties.","Look at intermezzo: 4.7.2.","Some of us think that the goals of our organisation should be influenced by recent and actual changes in society.","Look at intermezzo: 4.7.3.","Some of us think that our organisation still sticks to the original goals because we still believe we are the only ones who are morally right.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.8.","The goals of our organisation are not commonly shared, they are in fact dictated by a few people.","4.8.1.","The goals of the organisation were formulated by the early founders who are still ruling as leaders.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","4.8.2.","The goals are dictated by the activists.","Look at problem 7: power.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","4.8.3.","The goals are dictated by those who form the main connection to the donor.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","4.8.4.","The goals of our organisation are dictated by the management.","Look at problem 7: power.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.9.","The donor is forcing us to change the goals of our organisation.","4.9.1.","The donor is only willing to fund our organisation if we adjust(ed) our goals.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","4.9.2.","In order to get funding continued we bent our goals in the direction of the priorities of the donor.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 4.10.","Our goals are no longer inspiring.","4.10.1.","The goals are more or less outdated.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 5: trends.","4.10.2.","The goals are too feasible to be inspiring.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene (chapter goals.) Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","4.10.3.","The goals are too ambitious.","Look at problem 4.1.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 5.","Individual and collective resilience.","What is bothering most?","5.1.","Symptoms of declining individual resilience.","5.2.","Symptoms of declining collective resilience.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 5.1.","Symptoms of declining individual resilience.","5.1.1.","Some people are constantly complaining of being tired or exhausted.","Look at problem 1.1.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","5.1.2.","Some people, when working in the organisation, look like being depressed.","Look at intermezzo: 5.1.3.","Some of us run and run, without producing proportional results.","Look at intermezzo: 5.1.4.","Some of us complain violently of the complexity of the problems we are facing.","Look at intermezzo: 5.1.5.","Some of us seem to have lost completely the joy of working.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene (support).","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","5.1.6.","Some of us complain of being neglected by anyone else in the organisation.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 5.2.","Symptoms of declining collective resilience.","5.2.1.","Most of the members of the organisation are tired or exhausted.","Look at problem 1.1.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","5.2.2.","We could describe our organisation as being depressed.","Look at problem 5.1.2.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","5.2.3.","We run and run without producing sufficiently.","Look at intermezzo: 5.2.4.","We think the problems we are facing are too complex to handle.","Look at intermezzo: 5.2.5.","As a group we lost completely the joy of working.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","5.2.6.","As members of the organisation we feel neglected and left alone.","Look at intermezzo: 5.2.7.","We are no longer capable to be receptive and eager to learn.","Look at intermezzo: 5.2.8.","We feel we have no time for reflection.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","5.2.9.","We suffer from feelings of inadequacy.","Look at intermezzo: 5.2.10.","We are divided amongst ourselves, we make mischief, we have constantly  conflicts.","Look at: problem 1: bad atmosphere.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","5.2.11.","We cannot stand differences amongst ourselves, we polarize disparities.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","5.2.12.","We suffer from several of these symptoms!!","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 6.","Money What is bothering most?","6.1.","Availability of financial resources.","6.2.","The motivation of people with paid jobs in the organisation.","6.3.","Financial management of our organisation.","6.4.","Being funded and freedom of action.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 6.1.","Availability of financial resources 6.1.1.","We do not have enough funds to survive as an organisation.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","6.1.2.","We cannot (continue to) pay full employment of our people.","Look at intermezzo: 6.1.3.","Foreign attention is fading, donors are leaving.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","6.1.4.","We get only funds for projects that realise priorities of the donors.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","6.1.5.","We are fighting with other NGO's for donors and funds.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Read action 4: strategic scenario.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","6.1.6.","The government is not willing to fund our activities.","Look at intermezzo: 6.1.7.","It is hazardous to demand clients to pay for our products or services.","Look at  intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 6.2.","The motivation of people with paid jobs in the organisation.","6.2.1.","Payment veils the motivation of people.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","6.2.2.","The ideological involvement, like that of the pioneers, is sacrificed by paying people.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","6.2.3.","People who get paid for their work are wrongly accused for not being motivated and inspired by the goals of the organisation.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Read communication 1: internal communication.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","6.2.4.","(Too high) payment attracts people who don't have any affinity with the organisational goals.","Look at intermezzo: 6.2.5.","Most of the people who have paid jobs in the organisation have no preference to work in a NGO.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Look at solution 10: close the organisation.","6.2.6.","It is difficult to combine in one organisation paid staff and volunteers.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 6.3.","Financial management of our organisation.","6.3.1.","There is a lack of control because the one who is managing the budget is also the controller.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read organisations 1: structure of organisations.","Read organisations 2: some basic organisational requirements.","6.3.2.","Financial management in our organisation is done without any transparency.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","6.3.3.","Some projects are rolling in luxury while some others can hardly manage.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","6.3.4.","Budgets are managed centrally: project leaders have no control over the expenses in their own projects.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","6.3.5.","Earmarked  financial resources are sometimes also used to relieve other needs.","Look at intermezzo: 6.3.6.","There has been some talk of overt or covert fraud or corruption.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 6.4.","Being funded and the freedom of action.","6.4.1.","The donor dictates our activities and/or the way we appear in the news.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","6.4.2.","The donor pays for activity A but we use the money to realize our own goals by other activities.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at problem 6.3.5.","6.4.3.","Accounting for subsidy is very time consuming.","A lot of our precious time is spent on writing reports instead on activities serving our goals directly.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read organisations 7: fundraising.","6.4.4.","Being paid by the (local) government -whom we hitherto opposed and fought-, makes us unworthy in the eyes of our supporters.","Look at intermezzo: 6.4.5.","We do not know if the government -who is willing to fund us- can be trusted.","Look at problem: 6.4.4.","6.4.6.","We alienate ourselves from our peers if we accept funding from the government.","Look at problem: 6.4.4.","6.4.7.","The government who is funding us forces us to submit to all kinds of control.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.","Power.","What is bothering most?","7.1.","Power and internal democracy.","7.2.","Power and feminism.","7.3.","Power and leadership.","7.4.","Power and transparency.","7.5.","Power of family.","7.6.","Power of the (small) community.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.1.","Power and internal democracy.","7.1.1.","Internal democracy supposes a horizontal decision structure, but in our organisation decisions are taken centrally.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read organisations 1: structure of organisations.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","7.1.2.","In our horizontal structure everyone is in control of anything, resulting in no control at all.","Look at intermezzo: 7.1.3.  Apparently we have a democratic structure, except when it comes to decisions.","Look at intermezzo: 7.1.4.","Some members want to be decisive in matters regarding the client group.","Look at intermezzo: 7.1.5.","Decisions should be more transparent.","Look at problem 7.4.  Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.2.","Power and feminism.","7.2.1.","Feminism and effective decision making appear to be incompatible.","Look at intermezzo: 7.2.2.","Feminism prescribes horizontality, but no one has an overview.","Look at intermezzo: 7.2.3.","The feminist activists who founded the organisation dictate the line of action, thinking they are the only ones who have the right opinions.","Look at problem 4.7.3.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.3.","Power and leadership.","7.3.1.","The management or leader of our organisation takes all the decisions without consulting members of the operating core.","Look at intermezzo: 7.3.2.","The leader of our organisation is so convinced being morally right, that everybody feels morally imperfect.","Look at intermezzo: 7.3.3.","The leader is claiming and monopolizing the contact with the donor.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","7.3.4.","Leadership seems to coincide with remaining the top dog and bossing the others.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.4.","Power and transparency.","7.4.1.","Decisions are taken without consulting the members of the organisation.","Look at problem: 7.3.1.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","7.4.2.","We cannot control decisions because the limits of authority are unclear.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","7.4.3.","We cannot control the power, we even do not know which decisions are taken.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.5.","Power and family.","7.5.1.","Contact with donors and other important jobs are going to members of the family of our leader.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","And Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 7.6.","Power of the (small) community.","7.6.1.","We are too dependent of the consent of powerful people in the local community.","Look at intermezzo: 7.6.2.","The values of the community limit our freedom of work.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.","Expertise.","What is bothering most?","8.1.","The workers lack the skills or the expertise in content, needed for the job.","8.2.","Workers do not have a political feeling.","8.3.","Workers do not have innovative power.","8.4.","Workers do not show enough initiative","8.5.","A learning attitude is missing.","8.6.","The organisation does not react to insufficient performance and/or capacities","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.1.","The workers lack the skills or the knowledge needed for the job.","8.1.1.","They do not have the right education.","Look at intermezzo: 8.1.2.","They have to be trained to do the job according to the NGO's standards.","Look at intermezzo: 8.1.3.","They are sufficiently educated and trained, but they do not develop any further.","Look at intermezzo: 8.1.4.","They cannot perform independently.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.2.","Workers do not have political feeling.","8.2.1.","There are doubts concerning the political attitude of the workers.","Look at problem 4.6 8.2.2.","They are just fascinated by the work itself.","Look at intermezzo: 8.2.3.","They do not understand well the link between mission and the activities.","Look at problem 4.2.","or 4.6.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.3.","Workers do not have innovative power.","8.3.1.","They just do not know how to develop the content any further.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","8.3.2.","We only have one or two members who have innovative competence.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.4.","Workers do not show enough initiative 8.4.1.","They just follow the way things go, they do not anticipate.","Look at intermezzo: 8.4.2.","They always need encouragement and guidance to go any further","Look at intermezzo: 8.4.3.","They seem helpless in going on independently.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.5.","A learning attitude is missing.","8.5.1.","Workers tend to avoid supervision or evaluation.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read organisations 4: evaluating and monitoring.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","8.5.2.","Workers hardly ever share their working experiences.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","8.5.3.","Workers do not seem to be very receptive for external input of expertise.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 8.6.","The organisation does not react to insufficient performance and/or capacities.","8.6.1.","There are no regular evaluations of the work of each member of the organisation.","Look at intermezzo: 8.6.2.","Results of appraisal interviews or similar instruments are without any consequences.","Look at intermezzo: 8.6.3.","Theoretically people can be dismissed, but in practise it is impossible to get rid of an incompetent worker.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 9.","Agreements are our problem.","What is bothering most?","9.1.","Nobody stands by the agreements made.","9.2.","Agreements are made, but afterwards people bring them again in question.","9.3.","It is very hard to reach agreements.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 9.1.","Nobody stands by the agreements made.","9.1.1.","Sticking to one's word is just not felt as an organisational virtue.","Look at intermezzo: 9.1.2.","The agreements made are just not clear enough.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 9.2.","Agreements are made, but afterwards people bring them again in question.","9.2.1.","People think that rearguing should be possible at any time, being a democratic right.","Look at intermezzo:","Look also at intermezzo: 9.2.2.","People are not willing to submit to an agreement if it does not suit them personally.","Look at intermezzo: 9.2.3.","If people did not attend a meeting in which an agreement was reached they feel free to argue this agreement the next time.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 9.3.","It is very hard to reach agreements.","9.3.1.","The interests of the people involved are too divergent.","Look at intermezzo: 9.3.2.","It seems like agreeing is an admission of weakness.","Look at intermezzo: 9.3.3.","Maybe the matters at stake are just too complex.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.","The external relations of the organisation are our problem.","What is bothering most?","10.1.","We have no relationships with organisations in the outside world at all.","10.2.","We lack good contact with the local or national government.","10.3.","We lack relationships with relevant GO or private institutions in our region.","10.4.","We seldom meet peer NGO's.","10.5.","We do not have any relationship with profit organisations.","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.1.","We have no relationships with organisations in the outside world at all.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.2.","We lack good contact with the local or national government.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.3.","We lack relationships with relevant GO or private institutions in our region.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.4.","We seldom meet peer NGO's.","Look at intermezzo:","Go Back Main Menu OD TOOLKIT 10.5.","We do not have any relationship with profit organisations.","Look at intermezzo:","OD TOOLKIT","./en_problems_referrals.htm","87,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[91]=new Array("1.6.1.1: Attention! A conflict about goals can boast of a better image than a conflict about salary or about who should occupy the room with the nicest view.","When goals are involved in conflicts one should invite the parties concerned to take small steps down the staircase of problems.","Or to illustrate what differences in goals would mean in practice.","This might shift the discussion to a level where results are easier obtained.","If not:","Look at problem 4: goals.","Look a solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read action 1: strategy.","Intermezzo 1.6.1.1","./en_im_1_6_1_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[92]=new Array("1.7.5.1: It is important to explore the cause of the aggression.","Has the population of clients changed, are the clients traumatised, or is their attitude in one way or another related to the way they are treated by the organisation? In either way the organisation has to examine its approach.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Intermezzo 1.7.5.1","./en_im_1_7_5_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[93]=new Array("1.7.2.1: The change of attitude of clients sometimes reflects the changing phase of the organisation itself.","Clients who know the volunteer character of the organisation may expect a personal relationship, while clients of a professional organisation will act according their expectation of a more objective relationship.","If the satisfaction of the work is related to the type of relationship, such a change may harm the common level of content of the workers.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Intermezzo 1.7.2.1","./en_im_1_7_2_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[94]=new Array("6.1.2.1: Before taking any action, compare the salaries paid by the organisation with those paid by GO's for comparable jobs.","Some NGO's, once payment is possible, make the wrong salary decisions, paying the personnel salaries far exceeding those earned in GO's.","Sometimes encouraged to do so by the donor.","This policy is due to the tendency to compare payment with that of the representatives of the donor(countries), reinforced by the experience of internationally accepted fee for translation etc., which surpass by far the local standards.","This overpayment has a lot of negative effects, even in the sphere of motivation of the overpaid group.","If this is the case the organisation should look for a serious reorientation on the rate of pay.","If salaries are more or less equal to what people with same formal education in comparable jobs get paid for in GO's, then the problem is different.","Look at dynamic 1: Mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Read: organisations 7: fundraising.","Look at solution 3: back to the status of action group.","Intermezzo 6.1.2.1","./en_im_6_1_2_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[95]=new Array("1.7.3.1:  If the competence of the workers have stuck at the original level, the complexity of the problem will cause a big problem for the workers.","This because they gradually will experience that most problems brought before them are of a broader and deeper nature than they look.","If at the same time no proper training is provided the workers will experience incompetence.","This will lead to various form of malfunctioning of which absence due to illness is the most common.","Remember that these workers can really be sick, experienced incompetence can lead to serious health problems.  Capacity building is necessary.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Intermezzo 1.7.3.1","./en_im_1_7_3_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[96]=new Array("6.2.4.1: Before taking any action, compare the salaries paid by the organisation with those paid by GO's for comparable jobs.","Some NGO's, once payment is possible, make the wrong salary decisions, paying the personnel salaries far exceeding those earned in GO's.","Sometimes encouraged to do so by the donor.","This policy is due to the tendency to compare payment with that of the representatives of the donor(countries), reinforced by the experience of internationally accepted fee for translation etc., which surpass by far the local standards.","This overpayment has a lot of negative effects, even in the sphere of motivation of the overpaid group.","If this is the case the organisation should look for a serious reorientation on the rate of pay.","If salaries are more or less equal to what people with same formal education in comparable jobs get paid for in GO's, then the problem is different.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Look at dynamic 1: mushrooming of NGO's in countries of former Yugoslavia.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Intermezzo 6.2.4.1","./en_im_6_2_4_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[97]=new Array("2.1.2.1: Possibly important in this case:","decentralise more of the say a person has about his or hor own task and balance it by the duty of that person to render account.","  people in the organisation should reach a shared opinion on the quantity of work a member of the organisation should perform.","the span of control of the middle manager(s), i.e.","the number of workers they are supporting and or controlling, should not be too small (risk of undesired meddlesomeness, or too big (risk of neglect).","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Intermezzo 2.1.2.1","./en_im_2_1_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[98]=new Array("6.1.7.1: People, used to a society in which education, health and care are free of charge, will not easily be persuaded to pay for such goods.","That could be one reason.","A second reason has to do with the mechanism of the market of supply and demand.","Demands exist, but some of it without buying capacity.","If supplying such demands is considered a societal necessity, it is usually the government who provides free supply, directly by GO's or indirectly by subsidising organisations who provide supplementary.","A third reason to hesitate asking payment has to do with possible negative consequences of entering the market as a NGO.","It may raise all kinds questions concerning profit, competitors, proportion of price and quality, credibility and so on.","Look at dynamic 3: coming from socialism.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read civil society 1: a list of possible NGO contributions.","Read civil society 2: definitions of civil society.","Read civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of civil society.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Read change 1: strategic change and read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 6.1.7.1","./en_im_6_1_7_1.htm","2,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[99]=new Array("2.2.4.1: If a free service has always or for a long time be the standard the clients will inevitably protest against paying a fee.","An open communication with the clients, explaining the reason for the change, is the only way to get the new practice accepted. ","Look at problem 6.1.","Read communication 3: research and public support.","Intermezzo 2.2.4.1","./en_im_2_2_4_1.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[100]=new Array("2.3.2.1.1: You must be pretty dauntless  to look behind this statement! Don't think lightly about  breaking the silence on this subject.","A shortage of work is a  painful situation for which an organisation can have various covers.","The most confusing cover is overactivity.","People are extremely busy, sometimes to the extend of being overloaded and stressed.","A closer look reveals they don't work towards an output but on conditions which could lead to output.","In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone blows the whistle.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","And: Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","And at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 1: strategising change.","Intermezzo 2.3.2.1.1","./en_im_2_3_2_1_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[101]=new Array("2.3.2.1.1: You must be pretty dauntless  to look behind this statement! Don't think lightly about  breaking the silence on this subject.","A shortage of work is a  painful situation for which an organisation can have various covers.","The most confusing cover is overactivity.","People are extremely busy, sometimes to the extend of being overloaded and stressed.","A closer look reveals they don't work towards an output but on conditions which could lead to output.","In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone blows the whistle.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","And: Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","And at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 1: strategising change.","Intermezzo 2.3.2.1.1","./en_im_2_3_2_2_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[102]=new Array("2.3.5.1: Maybe there is just not enough real work.","This might seem unlikely because the workers are probably busy.","But a shortage of work is often veiled by overactivity.","The energy will than for example be directed towards refining the procedures.  In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone comes forward with the idea that maybe there is just not enough work.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","And look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","And at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Intermezzo 2.3.5.1","./en_im_2_3_5_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[103]=new Array("2.4.4.1: The crucial question could be: why couldn't we discuss and solve this problem at an appropriate (earlier) moment? Is it because we have a non interference culture? (Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture).","Or is it because it is very hard to realise that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others.","Especially for founders such a reality can be unbearable.","Founders are often highly respected and nobody wants to hurt them.","Yet the acceptance of the situation is a necessary step.","So prepare with other workers a safe and accepting atmosphere before bringing the subject into an open discussion.","And look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 3: resistance to change.","Intermezzo 2.4.4.1","./en_im_2_4_4_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[104]=new Array("2.5.1.1: The crucial question could be: why couldn't we discuss this problem at  at an appropriate (earlier) moment? Couldn't we foresee it? Or is it because we have a non interference culture? (Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture).","Or is it difficult to discuss because of the confrontation with the fact that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others.","Especially for founders such a reality can be painful.","Try to assure a safe and accepting atmosphere before starting a discussion.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Read change 5: trends.","Intermezzo 2.5.1.1","./en_im_2_5_1_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[105]=new Array("2.5.4.1: Maybe it is hard to realise that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others? Especially for founders who maybe were leaders in opposing government it can be hard to swallow that government provides nowadays the same service as their organisation.","If this is the case, do not rush into implementing organisational changes but start a discussion in a safe and accepting atmosphere.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 2.5.4.1","./en_im_2_5_4_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[106]=new Array("2.7.1.2.1: You must be pretty dauntless  to look behind this statement! Don't think lightly about  breaking the silence on this subject.","A shortage of work is a  painful situation for which an organisation can have various covers.","The most confusing cover is overactivity.","People are extremely busy, sometimes to the extend that they are overloaded and stressed.","Only a closer look reveals that they don't work towards an output but on conditions which could lead to output.","In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone blows the whistle.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Read change 3: resistance to change.","Intermezzo 2.7.1.2.1","./en_im_2_7_1_2_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[107]=new Array("2.7.3.1: Maybe there is just not enough real work.","This might seem unlikely because the workers are probably busy.","But a shortage of work is often veiled by overactivity.","The energy will then for example be directed towards refining the procedures.  In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone tables the idea that maybe there is just not enough work.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 3: resistance to change.","Intermezzo 2.7.3.1","./en_im_2_7_3_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[108]=new Array("2.7.4.1: You must be pretty dauntless  to look behind this statement! Don't think lightly about  breaking the silence on this subject.","A shortage of work is a  painful situation for which an organisation can have various covers.","The most confusing cover is overactivity.","People are extremely busy, sometimes to the extend of being overloaded and stressed.","Only a closer look reveals that they don't work towards an output but on conditions which could lead to output.","In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone blows the whistle.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation mission.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 2.7.4.1","./en_im_2_7_4_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[109]=new Array("2.8.1.1: So what? Your organisation has no exclusive rights to the kind of service you're providing.","So what is the problem? Cant you find an effective answer to tho growing competition? In that case this should be your target: why are we lagging behind? Is it because we don't dare to talk about it? Do we have a non interference culture? (Look at solution changing the organisational culture).","Or is it because it is very hard to realise that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others.","Especially for founders this reality can be almost unbearable.","If this is the case, do not rush into quality programs or something like that, but try to start a discussion in a safe and accepting atmosphere.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 2.8.1.1","./en_im_2_8_1_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[110]=new Array("2.8.2.1: Maybe it is hard to realise that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others? Especially for founders who maybe were leaders in opposing government it can be hard to swallow that government provides nowadays the same service as their organisation.","If this is the case, do not rush into implementing organisational changes but start a discussion in a safe and accepting atmosphere.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 2.8.2.1","./en_im_2_8_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[111]=new Array("2.9.1.1.","The quality of the output often is not at question so long as the organisation fills a gap.","The fact that the service (or product) is offered at all, is the most important issue.","Refugees are given shelter.","Violated women are offered a safe house.","Silence around sexual abuse is broken.","Raped women are helped to pursue the perpetrator.","Etc.","It is not a problem that the help is given by people who are not professionals.","Maybe it is even a advantage that they do not belong to the professions who failed at the crucial moments.","But gradually if the organisation is growing, the expectancies are growing too.","The workers themselves feel the same thing, they are no longer satisfied with offering the basics, they want to be of help by counselling or therapy, by education, training, consult etc., all based on their own experiences and new methods of approach.","If one of the NGO's aims is to influence regular institutions to offer products or services better adapted to the existing demands, then the professional status of the workers becomes more important.","The receptiveness of psychiatric practitioners for instance, in principle willing to listen to possible ameliorations of their approach of violated women, will diminish if members of the NGO do not share with them the same body of knowledge.","Especially if the message sounds too simple ('you have to listen to the woman in question') a lacking comparable status or formal education can harm the cooperation.","In short: NGO's whose activities pretend to go beyond filling the gap should professionalize.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Intermezzo 2.9.1.1","./en_im_2_9_1_1.htm","2,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[112]=new Array("2.9.2.1: If the competence of the workers have stuck at the original level, the complexity of the problem will cause a big problem for the workers.","This because they gradually will experience that most problems brought before them are of a broader and deeper nature than they look.","If at the same time no proper training is provided the workers will experience incompetence.","This will lead to various form of malfunctioning of which absence due to illness is the most common.","Remember that these workers can really be sick, experienced incompetence can lead to serious health problems.  Capacity building is necessary.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Intermezzo 2.9.2.1","./en_im_2_9_2_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[113]=new Array("2.9.5.1: The change of attitude of clients sometimes reflects the changing phase of the work of the organisation itself.","Clients who know the unique offer of the organisation just may expect simple help and a personal relationship.","If the type of help gets a bit more widespread and other professional organisations compete at the same market, then the clients will act according their expectation.","Based on their scope of the existing offer, they demand quality and expertise.","(This phenomenon is known as  proto- professionalisation of the client.)","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read change 4: strategic positioning, and change 5: trends.","Intermezzo 2.9.5.1","./en_im_2_9_5_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[114]=new Array("2.9.6.1: What is beyond this debate is more interesting than the question itself.","It is obvious that the answer differs from case to case.","Would the right attitude do if your appendix has to be removed? If you need a hug, will you require someone with a formal education? So a fruitful diversion from the debate could be the question: how did we get into this?","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional","Intermezzo 2.9.6.1","./en_im_2_9_6_1.htm","0,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[115]=new Array("3.1.2.1: The crucial question is why these people -in their view- did not get enough possibilities? Sometimes the organisation raises obstacles for the staff to mature.","For instance because of the fact that authority is kept strictly centrally and distribution of duties is not accompanied by distribution of authority (power).","Or there is no capacity building.","Or because of the fact that growing competence is felt as a threat by the actual managers or leaders.","Look at problem 7: power.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read managament&leadership 8: feminist leadership and management&leadership 4: human resource management..","Intermezzo 3.1.2.1","./en_im_3_1_2_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[116]=new Array("3.3.4.1: In some organisations it requires courage to say what the statement says: that there are alternatives to the organisation, and even attractive ones.","If it is difficult to have a open discussion about this matter, the organisational culture is maybe one of the reasons why other alternatives are considered more attractive.","Your target should in this case be the culture of the organisation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Look also at problem 4.10: goals not inspiring any more.","Intermezzo 3.3.4.1","./en_im_3_3_4_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[117]=new Array("3.4.1.1: In some organisations it requires courage to say what the statement says: that there are alternatives to the organisation, and even attractive ones.","If it is difficult to have a open discussion about this matter, the organisational culture is maybe one of the reasons why other alternatives are considered more attractive.","Your target should in this case be the culture of the organisation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 3: resistance to change.","Look at problem 4: goals.","Intermezzo 3.4.1.1","./en_im_3_4_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[118]=new Array("3.8.2.1: In the last decade of the past century one of the most profound changes in the structure of organisations worldwide was the growing number of temporary workers.","The basic structure of organisations in the 21st century  might well be that of a small nucleus of staff members encircled by a constantly changing workforce of temps.","One of the questions brought about by this model is how company spirit and loyalty to the organisation can be maintained.","The answer is that spirit and loyalty of temps should be directed towards the project they are working on.  In every project the goals and values of the organisation should be clearly visible.","Staff members should be able to show the temps that a project is no less than the realisation of values in a practical form, thus enabling them to work motivated and inspired on the project.","Company spirit in its original sense is restricted to the staff members in the nucleus.","Look also at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Or solution 5: reducing the size of the organisation.","Or solution 4: growth.","Intermezzo 3.8.2.1","./en_im_3_8_2_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[119]=new Array("4.1.2.1.","There will always be a gap between the size of the problem and the effectivity of the answer provided by an NGO.","But sometimes the gap itself is consuming energy.","This happens when the leader of an organisation is a visionary who dwells so much in revealing the vastness of the problem that all efforts of the organisation start looking futile.","This kind of leader should be asked to come back to earth.","Read management&leadership 1: some aspects of leadership.","And Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene (chapter goals).","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 4.1.2.1","./en_im_4_1_2_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[120]=new Array("4.1.3.1: Maybe the complaint of complexity is true.","Some problems, once investigating them, turn out to be very complex (like for instance the treatment of perpetrators of -sexual- violence).","But sometimes complaining of  the complexity of the problem may cover up another problem.","For instance, complaining of complexity may be an excuse for low productivity.","Or it hides the lack of expertise.","Or it reveals a lack of internal consultation while everyone is toiling individually.","Or it is caused by a unpleasant atmosphere in which people back each other by complaining together.","Sometimes complaints of complexity can be considered as cries for help uttered by traumatised workers.","Try to figure out what the complaints in your organisation really mean.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Intermezzo 4.1.3.1","./en_im_4_1_3_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[121]=new Array("4.2.3.1: The starting organisation will often provide help or services with little more then the needs of the clients as guidance.","In the next phase trimming the activities becomes necessary.","This should be regarded by the organisation as the correction of an organisational mistake.","Clients who had their cats been fed or their dogs walked by the organisation should not be blamed.  ","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 4.2.3.1","./en_im_4_2_3_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[122]=new Array("4.4.1.1: Why is that bothering? Because of unwanted competition? (Look at problem 2.8.) Because of a shrinking market? (Look at problem 2.5.) Because of differences in quality? (Look at problem 2.5.3.) Or because of the harmed sense of being unique? (Look at problem 4.4.2.)","Try to figure out what is bothering most.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Intermezzo 4.4.1.1","./en_im_4_4_1_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[123]=new Array("4.4.2.1: Many NGO's are founded because of the shortcomings of existing GO's.","For example the way in which official institutions failed in helping victims of sexual violence.","The ultimate aim of the organisation was thus to influence GO's to do better.","But what if the organisation succeeds? What if GO's -partly- take over vision and methods? The own work of the organisation gradually will become less important.","Such an organisation may end up grumbling about the quality of the service the GO's deliver.","It is hard to realise that the organisation once so unique and much-needed gradually became just one among others.","If this is the case, the organisation should redefine criteria for success and reflect upon its actual goals.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Intermezzo 4.4.2.1","./en_im_4_4_2_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[124]=new Array("4.5.2.1: Some of the people who form part of the target group of the organisation will feel the urge to join the organisation.","The more society oppresses and excludes  the target group, the more they will find the organisation to be a warm accepting environment.","In the beginning this phenomenon will be experienced as a success of the organisation.","It is the place to be for the target group.","But one-sided concentration on being a home and a shelter and a meeting place makes the organisation less adequate for action.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society.","Intermezzo 4.5.2.1","./en_im_4_5_2_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[125]=new Array("4.5.3.1: A lot of beginning NGO's combine satisfying personal needs with action.","People who want to work with and in the organisation often belong to the group the organisation is working for.","But with professionalisation the number of people belonging to the target group decreases.","The satisfaction of personal needs becomes less important.","The professionals develop other personal needs, like obtaining interesting tasks, having fun, learning a lot.","The original needs gradually become less fashionable.","But a professional organisation who rests a bit actionist, can maintain real connections with the target group.","Such an organisation has access to inside information and is in time informed.","Maintaining some of the original warmth makes the professional organisation more worthwhile.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Intermezzo 4.5.3.1","./en_im_4_5_3_1.htm","1,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[126]=new Array("4.6.1.1: NGO's without political aims can also make an essential part of civil society.","But a society with injustices and societal imperfections demands NGO's which are not satisfied if some interests are promoted, but aim at sustainable societal change.","Read civil society 1: a list of possible NGO contributions.","Read civil society 2: definitions of civil society.","Read civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of civil society.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Intermezzo 4.6.1.1","./en_im_4_6_1_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[127]=new Array("4.6.2.1: This is in itself not a problem because NGO's without political aims can also make an essential part of civil society.","But a conflict may occur when some people within the organisation want to aim at development or societal change.","Their wish can arise from the experience that clients over and over again present the same problem.","So they want to attack the root of it.","A service-oriented organisation may succeed in developing social action.","The data and stories collected in servicing the target group can be tools to bring about social change.","(Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.)","In other cases the organisational culture will hinder the development of a more action oriented image.","Maybe the organisational culture itself can be the target of change.","(Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.) Otherwise this situation provides one of the few good reasons for splitting the organisation.","(Look at solution 7: splitting up.)","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Intermezzo 4.6.2.1","./en_im_4_6_2_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[128]=new Array("4.6.3.1: The phrase so-called necessity indicates that you don't share this view.","You belong to the service oriented wing.","The actionist wing often stresses the experience in the daily work of the organisation that clients over and over present te same problems, indicating the structural nature of the problem.","So why not attack the root of the problem.","The service oriented people often mean that problems don't go away through political talk and clients will be left alone if the organisation directs its energy to action or lobby.","This conflict of opinion is in some cases solved by developing social action activities in a service-oriented organisation.","The data and stories collected in the contacts with the target group can be tools to bring about social change.","In other cases the organisational culture will not permit the development of a more action oriented image.","This then provides one of the few good reasons for splitting the organisation.","Read organisation 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Read civil society 1: a list of possible NGO contributions.","Read civil society 2: definitions of civil society.","And read civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of civil society.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read civil society 5: reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Intermezzo 4.6.3.1","./en_im_4_6_3_1.htm","2,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[129]=new Array("4.7.1.1: Founders or leaders of organisations often were ahead of their time when the goals of the organisation were formulated.","Often they had to resist society and to fight for their ideas.","Such leaders tend to identify themselves with the goals sometimes to the extend of believing that the goals are more or less eternal.","They may loose receptivity for developments in society and their consequences.","An open discussion about the actuality of the goals may then be experienced as an attack on the leaders themselves.","If they impose the rigidity of their thinking upon the organisation as a whole the organisation will grow old and die with them.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read change 1: strategic change.","Read change 3: resistance to change.","Read change 4: strategic positioning.","Read change 5: trends.","Intermezzo 4.7.1.1","./en_im_4_7_1_1.htm","1,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[130]=new Array("4.7.2.1.","Founders or leaders of organisations often were ahead of their time when the goals of the organisation were formulated.","Often they had to resist society and to fight for their ideas.","Such leaders tend to identify themselves with the goals sometimes to the extend of believing that the goals are more or less eternal.","They may loose receptivity for developments in society and their consequences.","An open discussion about the actuality of the goals may then be experienced as an attack on the leaders themselves.","If they impose the rigidity of their thinking upon the organisation as a whole the organisation will grow old and die with them.","Look at solution 1B: reorientation of mission.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read change 5: trends.","Intermezzo 4.7.2.1","./en_im_4_7_2_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[131]=new Array("4.7.3.1: Time is a necessary factor in enriching one's vision.","Developing a vison always detracts something from the original one.","That can be a difficult process.","Too big an identification with the original vision creates a defence against change.","But if the organisation continues to dinning in the old ideological faith it will be considered by an increasing number of people as only one aspect of the truth.","Ultimately people will turn away form organisations they think are one-sided.","Look at problem 7: power.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Intermezzo 4.7.3.1","./en_im_4_7_3_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[132]=new Array("5.1.2.1: The feeling of being deficient in one's duty may also be generated by management or leaders continuously showing their disappointment.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene, especially the chapter on support.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","If no such external provocation of depression exists, maybe the organisation suffers from secondary traumatisation.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Intermezzo 5.1.2.1","./en_im_5_1_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[133]=new Array("5.1.3.1: Maybe there is just not enough real work.","This might seem unlikely because the workers are busy.","But a shortage of work is often veiled by overactivity.","The energy will than for example be directed towards refining the procedures.  In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone comes forward with the idea that maybe there is just not enough work.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","Also  look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","And look at problem 2.3.2.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Intermezzo 5.1.3.1","./en_im_5_1_3_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[134]=new Array("5.1.4.1:   If the competence of the workers have stuck at the original level, the complexity of the problem will cause a big problem for the workers.","This because they gradually will experience that most problems brought before them are of a broader and deeper nature than they look.","If at the same time no proper training is provided the workers will experience incompetence.","This will lead to various form of malfunctioning of which absence due to illness is the most common.","Remember that these workers can really be sick, experienced incompetence can lead to serious health problems.  Capacity building is necessary.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at problem 2.9.1.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Look at problem 4.1.3.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Intermezzo 5.1.4.1","./en_im_5_1_4_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[135]=new Array("5.2.3.1: Maybe there is just not enough real work.","This might seem unlikely because the workers are busy.","But a shortage of work is often veiled by overactivity.","The energy will than for example be directed towards refining the procedures.  In this situation the organisation will be very defensive if someone comes forward with the idea that maybe there is just not enough work.","So be cautious and do not bring up this subject in a meeting before you have recruited support in individual talks.","Look at problem 2.3.2.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Intermezzo 5.2.3.1","./en_im_5_2_3_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[136]=new Array("5.2.4.1: .","If the competence of the workers have stuck at the original level, the complexity of the problem will cause a big problem for the workers.","This because they gradually will experience that most problems brought before them are of a broader and deeper nature than they look.","If at the same time no proper training is provided the workers will experience incompetence.","This will lead to various form of malfunctioning of which absence due to illness is the most common.","Remember that these workers can really be sick, experienced incompetence can lead to serious health problems.  Capacity building is necessary.","Look at problem 8: expertise.","Look at problem 2.9.1.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer towards professional.","Look at problem 4.1.3.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Intermezzo 5.2.4.1","./en_im_5_2_4_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[137]=new Array("5.2.6.1: Maybe you are.","Sometimes trained workers are considered to be tough people no longer dependent on compliments or appreciation.","Nothing is less true.","If lack of appreciation becomes a trait, people start to doubt, their self esteem is decreasing and at last they feel depressed.","Support and appreciation are lasting necessities for  motivation.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Intermezzo 5.2.6.1","./en_im_5_2_6_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[138]=new Array("5.2.7.1: A whole organisation can be locked up into being morally right.","That blocks the receptivity for signals from the outside world.","The daily work becomes standardised instead of constantly enriched by feed back and reflexion.","If you think that this is the case you will meet massive denial when bringing this up in a meeting.","Be cautious and first try to win ground in individual talks.  Look at problem: 4.7.3.","If that is not the case: Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Intermezzo 5.2.7.1","./en_im_5_2_7_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[139]=new Array("5.2.9.1: Sometimes feelings of inadequacy can be generated by an overactive line management.","If the (middle)manager takes over, solves problems, smooths out problems and finds solutions the worker can get the symptoms of 'trained incompetence'.","The situation in which the other (the manager) always knows and does better, may create heavy feelings of inadequacy.","A complication is that often the manager tackles the problem better then the worker.","Should the manager nevertheless be satisfied with a second best solution? Yes! The only remedy is to permit people to make their own mistakes.","Don't think lightly about this.","It requires a change of management style.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","If this is not the case: Look at dynamic 2: traumatised organisations.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Intermezzo 5.2.9.1","./en_im_5_2_9_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[140]=new Array("6.1.6.1: In countries in which the government is not (yet) used to a vital civil society, NGO's which criticise the government may be considered as enemies of the state.","In such a frame of reference it is not logic to subsidise such NGO's.","It demands thinking in terms of checks and balances to accept the fact that NGO's could be partners and opponents at the same time.","Funding some activities of NGO's can be an expression of this view.","But even then both parties have to get used to the fact that cooperation means overcoming prejudging the other party as the enemy.","It means negotiating and considering the question of watering one's claims.","Look at problem 6.4.","Look at solution 1B reorientation of mission.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstreaming.","Intermezzo 6.1.6.1","./en_im_6_1_6_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[141]=new Array("6.2.6.1.","The ownership of NGO's with an action history is more or less with the volunteers.","Paying people for the same job the volunteers do for free always lead to difficulties.","If paid people get other tasks then the volunteers, f.i.","financial specialists or the task to guide and support the volunteers, then an upper and lower class of workers tend to show up, a phenomenon not welcomed by the volunteers.","The reason for this difficulties is the fact that payment is experienced as appreciation of one's work.","If some are paid and others are not, it is very difficult for the not-paid to keep out the feeling of not being valued.","Sometimes it may seem inevitable to pay people for their work in an otherwise voluntary organisation, but using their talents as external experts, is preferable to letting them join the organisation.","If the organisation gets into the process of professionalisation payment will become normal.","In that case the transition from volunteering to getting paid should be a fast one, because discrepancies between paid and not paid people will not be beared for a long time.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Look at solution 4: growth.","Intermezzo 6.2.6.1","./en_im_6_2_6_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[142]=new Array("6.3.5.1: Always try to detect and mention fraud before it really is fraud.","In the beginning trespassing the rules or taking advantage of the opportunities is often of little importance.","People who notice the abuse or the small misdemeanours tend to minimize the seriousness, because they understand the reasons why and feel embarrassed in making a point of it.","But all scandals begin this way.","Fraud should be nipped in the bud.","The organisation should treat it straight and seriously, avoiding to conceal it or to keep it in small set.","The second aim should be to prevent fraud.","It can be done by creating an organisational culture in which one could say: "I joined in the activity myself, but looking back I think we did not do the right thing." Such a culture, together with rules, control and transparency helps to establish an organisation which is  fraud-proof.","And realize: fraud which comes to light without having been mentioned by the organisation itself always looks worse.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Intermezzo 6.3.5.1","./en_im_6_3_5_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[143]=new Array("6.3.6.1: Always try to detect and mention fraud before it really is fraud.","In the beginning trespassing the rules or taking advantage of the opportunities is often of little importance.","People who notice the abuse or the small misdemeanours tend to minimize the seriousness, because they understand the reasons why and feel embarrassed in making a point of it.","But all scandals begin this way.","Fraud should be nipped in the bud.","The organisation should treat it straight and seriously, avoiding to conceal it or to keep it in small set.","The second aim should be to prevent fraud.","It can be done by creating an organisational culture in which one could say: "I joined in the activity myself, but looking back I think we did not do the right thing." Such a culture, together with rules, control and transparency helps to establish an organisation which is  fraud-proof.","And realize: fraud which comes to light without having been mentioned by the organisation itself always looks worse.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Intermezzo 6.3.6.1","./en_im_6_3_6_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[144]=new Array("6.4.4.1: A lot of NGO's, aware of their crucial role in civil society and their co- responsibility for good governance, aim at changing the government.","One of the visible results of such a change would be the fact that the government would consider the work done by some NGO's as societal necessary, and would pay for it.","The grassroots or support groups of the NGO are used to be mobilized against that government.","Good communication is needed to explain that the NGO could be partner and opponent of the government at the same time.","It should be clear at all times that the NGO accepting subsidiary will remain free to criticise government.","Read organisations 6: the fan of mainstream.","Read communication 3: research and public support.","Read civil society 2: definitions of civil society.","Intermezzo 6.4.4.1","./en_im_6_4_4_1.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[145]=new Array("6.4.7.1.","The government itself is submitted to follow its own rules of accountability and financial auditing.","Accepting subsidy means accepting the accompanying control.","But sometimes governmental control is not so much a derivate from formal rules, but rather a reflection of an interfering and meddlesome culture.","An example: a local government subsidising a safe house for violated women, requests regular visits to control  the rightful spending of the subsidy.","Before accepting subsidy an NGO should think about the compatibility of its own goals with the habits of the controlling body.","Read organisation 7: fundraising.","Read action 2: negotiating skills.","Read action 3: ten golden rules for lobbying.","Intermezzo 6.4.7.1","./en_im_6_4_7_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[146]=new Array("7.1.2.1: Choosing a horizontal structure often means choosing against formal hierarchy.","This can be a healthy process of liberation.","But sometimes with hierarchy other structuring mechanisms are thrown away such as getting clear how decisions are taken, how tasks are divided and who takes responsibility for what.","(Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene).","If such agreements are not met and everyone wants a say in anything, this may indicate a lack of trust.","Having faith is a prerequisite for delegating.","The disadvantage of mistrustful horizontality is time consuming mutual control, causing a loss of energy and in the end  decomposing of the organisation.","(Look solution 8: changing the organisational culture.)","Sometimes however, horizontal structure is just a cover for uncontrolled informal hierarchy.  In the name of democracy nobody has any influence except the informal leader and some chosen.","Without clear power positions there will be no transparency, no accountability and no control of power.","(Read management&leadership 7: power.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.)","Intermezzo 7.1.2.1","./en_im_7_1_2_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[147]=new Array("7.1.3.1: Democracy is an ideology and a structure for organising power and a matter of mentality.","From this three aspects sometimes only one is really in place: the democratic structure.","In the absence of a democratic mentality and support for democracy as the central idea of running the organisation, the democratic structure will not guarantee a democratic way of decision making.","So in repairing this your aim should not be the refining of the democratic structure.","Try an open discussion about the other two aspects, especially about democracy as a mentality.","Look also at: solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Intermezzo 7.1.3.1","./en_im_7_1_3_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[148]=new Array("7.1.4.1: Why want people to be decisive in matters regarding the client group? Explained on the superficial level they only want the best for their group.","One level deeper they want to be seen as the ones who really care for the client, who really understand them and who fight for their interests, even against fellow members of the organisation.","On a dynamic level it may happen that those people have lost their serving attitude by identifying completely with the client group.","Their behaviour is certainly highly involved, but it lacks the distance needed to serve well.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Intermezzo 7.1.4.1","./en_im_7_1_4_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[149]=new Array("7.2.1.1: According to feminist ideology internal and external relationships should be characterised by equality.","Hierarchy for the sake of hierarchy is rejected.","And power for the sake of power is rejected as well.","That is why feminist activists choose to organize themselves preferably in horizontal structures.","But sometimes with hierarchy other structuring mechanisms are thrown away: getting clear how decisions are taken, how tasks are divided and who takes responsibility for what.","(Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.) If such agreements are not met and everyone wants a say in anything, this may indicate a lack of trust.","Having faith is a prerequisite for delegating.","The disadvantage of mistrustful horizontality is time consuming mutual control, causing a loss of energy and in the end  decomposing of the organisation.","(Look solution 8: changing the organisational culture.)","Sometimes however, horizontal structure is just a cover for uncontrolled informal hierarchy.  In the name of democracy nobody has any influence except the informal leader and some chosen.","Without clear power positions there will be no transparency, no accountability and no control of power.","(Read management&leadership 7: power.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.)","Intermezzo 7.2.1.1","./en_im_7_2_1_1.htm","2,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[150]=new Array("7.2.2.1: According to feminist ideology internal and external relationships should be characterised by equality.","Hierarchy for the sake of hierarchy is rejected.","And power for the sake of power is rejected as well.","That is why feminist activists choose to organize themselves preferably in horizontal structures.","But sometimes with hierarchy other structuring mechanisms are thrown away: getting clear how decisions are taken, how tasks are divided and who takes responsibility for what.","(Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene) If such agreements are not met and everyone wants a say in anything, this may indicate a lack of trust.","Having faith is a prerequisite for delegating.","The disadvantage of mistrustful horizontality is time consuming mutual control, causing a loss of energy and in the end  decomposing of the organisation.","(Look solution 8: changing the organisational culture.)","Sometimes however, horizontal structure is just a cover for uncontrolled informal hierarchy.  In the name of democracy nobody has any influence except the informal leader and some chosen.","Without clear power positions there will be no transparency, no accountability and no control of power.","(Read management&leadership 7: power.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.)","Intermezzo 7.2.2.1","./en_im_7_2_2_1.htm","2,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[151]=new Array("7.3.1.1: People on powerful positions sometimes have the tendency to isolate themselves.","It can be explained by the leader's fear that consulting the others might lead to a process that is hard to control and perhaps limiting the own range of action.","Such a leader or manager is no longer adequately fed with the experience from the actual work.","Ultimately this leader will become surrounded by people who agree with everything,  thereby definitely cutting off the leader from realistic feedback.","A reason for this phenomenon can be that a leader sticks to the once dominant ideas neglecting that members of the organisation meanwhile thinks differently.","Not consulting them provides the possibility to continue the own policy.","On a dynamic level there may be of course more reasons that could explain such behaviour.","If the leader is not corrected and stays in place the organisation will die.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Intermezzo 7.3.1.1","./en_im_7_3_1_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[152]=new Array("7.3.2.1: The problem here is that the leader probably is right in the eyes of those who suffer from feelings of moral inadequacy.  The leader will point at the gap between the size of the problem and the answer provided by an NGO.","Our visionary dwells so much in revealing the vastness of the problem that all efforts of the organisation start looking futile.","The answer could be to take a closer look at the opinions which are at the core of the leaders vision.","There is something wrong if a vision does not inspire.","Try these questions:  Is it a developing vision? Is it undergoing changes, is it a learning vision? Does a growing number of people in society regard the vision as outdated or can it still inspire people that come into fresh contact with it? Maybe you find at the root of the problem a leader with a too big identification with the original vision and a defence against change.","Making others feel imperfect could be a way of protecting the brittle ideas of the past.","If the organisation continues to dinning in the old ideological faith people will turn away from it.","Read: management&leadership 8: feminist leadership.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read management&leadership 5: External and internal steering.","Intermezzo 7.3.2.1","./en_im_7_3_2_1.htm","1,9","9 dec 2003");
Page[153]=new Array("7.6.1.1: Sometimes in rural areas, this situation is rather inevitable.","Maybe the NGO itself has not enough power or status to be able to negate the influence of such people.","If this is the case the only possibility is to involve those powerful people in such a way that they support the goals of the NGO's without interfering too much.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read action 1: strategy.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read communication 3: research and public support.","Intermezzo 7.6.1.1","./en_im_7_6_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[154]=new Array("7.6.2.1: Sometimes the NGO needs the support of the community in order to be effective.","If this is the case the only possibility is to involve the community in such a way that the goals of the NGO's are supported without interfering too much.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read communication 2: participation and public support.","Read communication 3: research and public support.","Intermezzo 7.6.2.1","./en_im_7_6_2_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[155]=new Array("8.1.1.1: A mature organisation will not accept that important tasks are assigned to unqualified workers.","Still it happens.","Reasons:","When an unstable outside world causes the influx of work the urgence is with coping, not with quality.","Everybody is happy that somebody does the job.","Expertise is for the time being of minor importance.","With stability returning the NGO will probably professionalise.","The organisation may invest in training its workers but some tasks simply demand academic education.","Who is going to tell the benevolent activists that they are to be replaced by professionals?","A somewhat hostile outside world causes a defensive internal orientation.","Such an attitude will strengthen the feeling of uniqueness leaving little room for questioning qualifications of workers.","Yet another reason is a possible monopoly of the NGO.","Without competitors the necessity for meeting professional standards  will be absent.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Intermezzo 8.1.1.1","./en_im_8_1_1_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[156]=new Array("8.1.2.1: Yes! If the organisation did not manage to contract already ideologically involved professionals, some kind of introduction and guidance is needed to make and keep the professionals attached to the specific NGO goals.","A problem to arise might be the trained objectivity in the professionals, whereas subjectivity is a characteristic of many NGO's.  Another difficulty could be the merging of professional values with the values of the organisation.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read civil society 6: code of conduct.","Intermezzo 8.1.2.1","./en_im_8_1_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[157]=new Array("8.1.3.1: Mature organisations will do anything to promote capacity building, and will not acquiesce in accepting such a situation.","Still it happens.","Reasons:","When an unstable outside world causes the influx of work the urgence is with coping, not with quality.","Everybody is happy that somebody does the job.","Expertise is for the time being of minor importance.","With stability returning the NGO will probably professionalise.","The organisation may present opportunities for training but the workers can take or leave it.","Nobody tells the benevolent activists who joined the NGO in darker days that they do not meet today's standards of expertise.","A somewhat hostile outside world causes a defensive internal orientation.","Such an attitude will strengthen the feeling of uniqueness leaving little room for questioning qualifications of workers.","Yet another reason is a possible monopoly of the NGO.","Without competitors the strive for quality will be absent.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Intermezzo 8.1.3.1","./en_im_8_1_3_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[158]=new Array("8.1.4.1: Maybe something happened, known as: "trained incompetence".","In some organisations workers, confronted with problems, will be helped by a senior or a manager who takes over, taking care for a solution.","What the worker learns is: if confronted with a problem someone else has to take over.","This way of problem solving in an organisation may lead to learned helplessness or trained incompetence.","The only way to change this, is to encourage people to make their own decisions and eventually their own mistakes.","And to reinforce this while doing so, absolutely avoiding to take over.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.1.4.1","./en_im_8_1_4_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[159]=new Array("8.2.2.1: If professionals are contracted to do the job, it is sometimes difficult to impregnate their objectified professional attitude with the vision and mission of the NGO.","A true professional is inspired by specific values of the profession and they will occupy moral space.","Nevertheless, if the organisation did not manage to contract already ideologically involved professionals, some kind of introduction and guidance is needed to make and keep the professionals attached to the specific NGO goals.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read civil society 6: a code of conduct.","Read organisations 1: structure of organisations (professional organisation).","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.2.2.1","./en_im_8_2_2_1.htm","1,5","9 dec 2003");
Page[160]=new Array("8.4.1.1: Maybe something happened, known as: "trained incompetence".","In some organisations workers, confronted with problems, will be helped by a senior or a manager who takes over, taking care for a solution.","What the worker learns is: if confronted with a problem someone else has to take over.","This way of problem solving in an organisation may lead to learned helplessness or trained incompetence.","The only way to change this, is to encourage people to make their own decisions and eventually their own mistakes.","And to reinforce this while doing so, absolutely avoiding to take over.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.4.1.1","./en_im_8_4_1_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[161]=new Array("8.4.2.1: Maybe something happened, known as: "trained incompetence".","In some organisations workers, confronted with problems, will be helped by a senior or a manager who takes over, taking care for a solution.","What the worker learns is: if confronted with a problem someone else has to take over.","This way of problem solving in an organisation may lead to learned helplessness or trained incompetence.","The only way to change this, is to encourage people to make their own decisions and eventually their own mistakes.","And to reinforce this while doing so, absolutely avoiding to take over.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.4.2.1","./en_im_8_4_2_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[162]=new Array("8.4.3.1: Maybe something happened, known as: "trained incompetence".","In some organisations workers, confronted with problems, will be helped by a senior or a manager who takes over, taking care for a solution.","What the worker learns is: if confronted with a problem someone else has to take over.","This way of problem solving in an organisation may lead to learned helplessness or trained incompetence.","The only way to change this, is to encourage people to make their own decisions and eventually their own mistakes.","And to reinforce this while doing so, absolutely avoiding to take over.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 6: empowerment through core qualities.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.4.3.1","./en_im_8_4_3_1.htm","1,6","9 dec 2003");
Page[163]=new Array("8.5.3.1:   Mature organisations will do anything to promote capacity building, and will not acquiesce in accepting such a situation.","Still it happens.","Reasons:","When a unstable outside world causes the influx of work the urgence is with coping, not with quality.","Everybody is happy that somebody does the job.","Expertise is for the time being of minor importance.","With stability returning the NGO will probably professionalise.","The organisation may present opportunities for training but the workers can take or leave it.","Nobody tells the benevolent activists who joined the NGO in darker days that they do not meet todays standards of expertise.","A somewhat hostile outside world causes a defensive internal orientation.","Such an attitude will strengthen the feeling of uniqueness leaving little room for questioning qualifications of workers.","Yet another reason is a possible monopoly of the NGO.","Without competitors the strive for quality will be absent.","Look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 3: the learning organisation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read change 2: change and the sense of urgency.","Intermezzo 8.5.3.1","./en_im_8_5_3_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[164]=new Array("8.6.1.1: Part of the professionalisation process is the introduction of all kinds of management tools.","In a pioneering NGO the informal ways of management are standard.","Control, appraisal and evaluation don't fit in the horizontal culture.","What counts is the common effort to reach the goals.","Beyond the pioneer phase some way of quality control becomes necessary to keep up the level of performance, but the remains of the horizontal culture might make this difficult.","Another explanation for absence of  control systems is that professionals do not like to be controlled by non-professionals.","Usually they only accept correction from other professionals.","Laymen cant judge their performance.","There might be some truth in it but if the organisation wants to guarantee that organisational goals are being achieved, some limits to the professional freedom should be accepted.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene and look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 4: evaluating and monitoring.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.6.1.1","./en_im_8_6_1_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[165]=new Array("8.6.2.1: Part of the professionalisation process is the introduction of all kinds of management tools.","In a pioneering NGO the informal ways of management are standard.","Control, appraisal and evaluation don't fit in the horizontal culture.","What counts is the common effort to reach the goals.","Beyond the pioneer phase some way of quality control becomes necessary to keep up the level of performance, but the remains of the horizontal culture might make this difficult.","Sometimes an organisation develops a ritual that looks like a quality instrument.","Appraisal interviews that end without conclusions can be seen as such.","But they might also be a first step to real quality control.","Look at solution 1A: Building or restoring organisational hygiene and look at solution 2: from pioneer to professional.","Read organisations 4: evaluating and monitoring.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM.","Read management&leadership 5: external and internal steering.","Intermezzo 8.6.2.1","./en_im_8_6_2_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[166]=new Array("8.6.3.1: Tolerating insufficient output or incompetence is the ugly side of a horizontal organisation.","Judging performance of colleagues is avoided and a veil is drawn over malfunctioning.","But continuous malfunctioning may harm the organisation and the motivation of its workers.","That is why a systematic evaluation has to be introduced, in which each one's performance is judged by objective standards and by earlier records.","Such evaluations have to be followed by consequences directed to improvement: instruction, training, education and so on.","In this the worker and the organisation bear both a part of the responsibility; the organisation for providing opportunities for improvement, the worker for realising the agreed targets of improvement.","If a sequence of such judgements and the accompanying investments do not lead to progress, than a decision should be made: either placing the person in question elsewhere in the organisation, on a position more fitting the persons competences, or dismissal and help in finding another job.","Look at solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Read organisations 4: evaluating and monitoring.","Read management&leadership 4: HRM..","Intermezzo 8.6.3.1","./en_im_8_6_3_1.htm","1,8","9 dec 2003");
Page[167]=new Array("9.1.1.1: This is more or less a distinctive feature of some NGO's.","It stems from the assumption that workers in a NGO need not to be bound by agreements to do their job.","There is a real problem when breaches of agreements start to become taken for granted.","If not sticking to one's word has no consequences, the organisational culture can rapidly deteriorate.","Than the individual freedom versus collective manageability should be further examined.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read communication 1: internal communication.","Intermezzo 9.1.1.1","./en_im_9_1_1_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[168]=new Array("9.1.2.1: Maybe people accept unclear agreements because they think they can sense what is meant and they will act accordingly.","It might still be wise to check this.","Another reason for vagueness could be that this provides individual freedom to deviate.","If this aspect of organisational culture is strong, then even hard-boiled agreements will show hairline cracks used to wriggle oneself out of them.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read organisations 1: structure of organisations (professional organisation).","Intermezzo 9.1.2.1","./en_im_9_1_2_1.htm","1,1","9 dec 2003");
Page[169]=new Array("9.2.1.1: This reasoning covers usually an organisational culture in which people defend their personal freedom.","This sometimes happens when the original identification with the organisation has been completely substituted by the professional identification.","Try to solve this underlying conflict of interests.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read organisations 5: summary of from pioneer to professional.","Intermezzo 9.2.1.1","./en_im_9_2_1_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[170]=new Array("9.2.1.2: Democracy is an ideology and a structure for organising power and a matter of mentality.","From this three aspects sometimes only one is really in place: the democratic structure.","In the absence of a democratic mentality and support for democracy as the central idea of running the organisation, the democratic structure will not guarantee a democratic way of decision making.","So in repairing this your aim should not be the refining of the democratic structure.","Try an open discussion about the other two aspects, especially about democracy as a mentality.","Look also at: solution 1A: building or restoring organisational hygiene.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read management&leadership 7: power.","Intermezzo 9.2.1.2","./en_im_9_2_1_2.htm","1,4","9 dec 2003");
Page[171]=new Array("9.2.2.1: This reasoning covers usually an organisational culture in which people defend their personal freedom.","This sometimes happens when the original identification with the organisation has been completely substituted by the professional identification.","Try to solve this underlying conflict of interests.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read organisations 5: summary of from pioneer to professional.","Intermezzo 9.2.2.1","./en_im_9_2_2_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[172]=new Array("9.2.3.1: This reasoning covers usually an organisational culture in which people defend their personal freedom.","This sometimes happens when the original identification with the organisation has been completely substituted by the professional identification.","Try to solve this underlying conflict of interests.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read organisations 5: summary of from pioneer to professional.","Intermezzo 9.2.3.1","./en_im_9_2_3_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[173]=new Array("9.3.1.1: The normal situation in an organisation is that people want to agree.","To that end they give and take.","The first question to answer is: why don't they? What do they achieve by articulating their interest so that no match is possible with other interests? A second angle to explore is that disagreeing at a practical level sometimes reveals disagreeing at a deeper level.","Maybe there is an underlying conflict of interests or identity.","Maybe some members of the organisation have developed own ideas regarding output, working methods or whatsoever.","Look at solution 11: conflict resolution.","Read gender & diversity 2: diversity in organisations.","Intermezzo 9.3.1.1","./en_im_9_3_1_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[174]=new Array("9.3.2.1: If people feel kept on a tight reign, being blocked in their professional freedom, they might shift the fight to another area.","Sometimes the common meeting is one of the few places in which one can demonstrate one's independence.","Look at problem 7: power.","Read management&leadership 3: a consulting style of leadership.","Read communication 1: internal communication.","Intermezzo 9.3.2.1","./en_im_9_3_2_1.htm","1","9 dec 2003");
Page[175]=new Array("9.3.3.1: If the problem is that no agreement could be reached because of complexity, it could be worthwhile to look at the preparation.","In most cases agreeing on main points or central issues is sufficient.","The details can be derived from the agreed headlines.","But maybe the problem is a lack of trust.","The agreement has to cover the subject from head to tail because parties want to tie each other down.","Complexity is the result but not the reason.","Concentrate on the question why parties need to settle details.","Start with solution 11: conflict resolution.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Intermezzo 9.3.3.1","./en_im_9_3_3_1.htm","1,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[176]=new Array("10.1.1: Sometimes NGO's become isolated because of a hostile attitude in the public opinion in the outside world.","A reaction may be to protect the organisation from unfriendly and unwanted influences, and to concentrate on the work.","Such NGO's may close the doors and the windows, not any longer being receptive towards eventual changes in the outside world.","Some NGO's hesitate tightening external contacts, because of the meddling in that might be the consequence.","Especially if the NGO is rather convinced of the own (moral) rightness, it sometimes breaks contacts with the outside world, in order to preserve the pure ideological convictions.","A internal discussion on the isolation issue should concentrate on the reasons to establish contacts such as that relationships could be helpful in performing the NGO's core business, especially in broadening its service to more (and perhaps other) target groups.","Look at solution 9: cooperation.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read communication 2: participation and pubic support.","Read action 4: strategic scenario.","Intermezzo 10.1.1","./en_im_10_1_1.htm","1,7","9 dec 2003");
Page[177]=new Array("10.2.1: Sometimes the relationships of NGO with government or governmental institutions are not just lacking but are negative.","Based on enmity.","May be comprehensible and nourished by negative experiences in the past, but kept alive as part of the oral history of the organisation and thereby sometimes degenerated into a rigid image of being natural enemies.","A courageous member of the organisation could question this tradition and propose reconsideration.","A tight positive relationships is not the only option.","The  relationships toward a governmental body could well be variable, sometimes being adversaries, sometimes partners.","In countries in which government is not yet  used to a vital civil society, NGO's which criticise the government may be considered as enemies of the state.","So both parties have to overcome prejudging the other party as the enemy.","Look at solution 9: cooperation.","Read action 1: strategy.","Read action 2: negotiating skills.","Read action 3: ten golden rules for lobbying.","Read: civil society 1: A list of possible NGO contributions, deduced from practise and literature.","Read: civil society 2: Definitions of civil society.","Read: civil society 3: NGO's and their contribution to the development of the civil society.","Read: civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Read: civil society 5: Reasons for a NGO to choose for contributing to civil society.","Intermezzo 10.2.1","./en_im_10_2_1.htm","2,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[178]=new Array("10.3.1: Isolation could be a problem if other types of relationships could be helpful in performing the NGO's core business, especially in broadening its service to more (and perhaps other) target groups.","Relationships in the outside world may help to learn, to broaden the scope, and of course to cooperate.","The main question is why the NGO misses these external contacts.","Sometimes NGO's become isolated because of a hostile attitude in the public opinion in the outside world.","A reaction may be to protect the organisation from unfriendly and unwanted influences, and to concentrate on the work.","Some NGO's hesitate tightening external contacts, because of the meddling in that might be the consequence.","Especially if the NGO is rather convinced of the own (moral) rightness, it sometimes breaks contacts with the outside world, in order to preserve the pure ideological convictions.","Sometimes the relationships with specific outside organisations (government, GO's, some private institutions) are based on enmity.","May be based on negative experiences in the past, but sometimes degenerated into a rigid image of being enemies.","The NGO should reconsider its relationships with the outside world.","Tight positive relationships are not the only options.","Especially the relationships toward governmental bodies could well be variable, sometimes being adversaries, sometimes partners.","Look at solution 9: cooperation.","Read action 1: strategy.","Read action 2: negotiating skills.","Read action 3: ten golden rules for lobbying.","Read civil society 4: NGO's and development action.","Intermezzo 10.3.1","./en_im_10_3_1.htm","2,2","9 dec 2003");
Page[179]=new Array("10.4.1: Some NGO's hesitate tightening external contacts, because of the meddling in that might be the consequence.","Especially if the NGO is rather convinced of the own (moral) rightness, it sometimes breaks contacts with the outside world, in order to preserve the pure ideological convictions.","A internal discussion on the isolation issue should concentrate on the reasons to establish contacts such as that relationships could be helpful in performing the NGO's core business, especially in broadening its service to more (and perhaps other) target groups.","Look at solution 8: changing the organisational culture.","Read solution 9: cooperation.","Read action 4: strategic scenario.","Intermezzo 10.4.1","./en_im_10_4_1.htm","1,3","9 dec 2003");
Page[180]=new Array("10.5.1: Most NGO's keep such distance from the world of corporations that the possibility of contact won't even enter their mind.","Yet many aims of NGO's are only feasible when companies cooperate